Abstract
Occupational burnout is a globally pandemic public health concern, exerting high costs on organizations, consumers, and workers. Amid definitional debate regarding burnout, psychometric research finds substantial construct overlap with clinical depression. In turn, evolutionary models explaining the adaptive origins of depression bring vital clarity to our conceptions of burnout. Of particular relevance are explanations of depression as an ancient appeasement strategy to avert conflict with higher-ranking group members, or dangerous in-group alliances. These dynamics underlie the relationship between dominance-oriented leadership styles and supervisee burnout, and can serve as leverage points to improve psychological safety, job satisfaction, and, ultimately, workplace productivity. Such models also provide key insights into the relationship between workgroup conflict and burnout, and the mental health problems increasingly identified among remote workers—in particular, difficulties with isolation, and with the constraints of communication technologies. While largely neglected in the organizational literature, the evolutionary sciences offer a pathway to correct mismatches between the environments in which our social instincts evolved, and the modern-day workplace.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The manuscript does not contain clinical studies or patient data.
References
Ahola, K., Hakanen, J., Perhoniemi, R., & Mutanen, P. (2014). Relationship between burnout and depressive symptoms: a study using the person-centred approach. Burnout Research, 1, 29–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burn.2014.03.003
Allen, N. B., & Badcock, P. B. (2003). The social risk hypothesis of depressed mood: evolutionary, psychosocial, and neurobiological perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 129(6), 887–913. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.6.887
Almeida, O. P., Yeap, B. B., Hankey, G. J., Jamrozik, K., & Flicker, L. (2008). Low free testosterone concentration as a potentially treatable cause of depressive symptoms in older men. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65(3), 283–289. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.33
Amanchukwu, R. N., Stanley, G. J., & Ololube, N. P. (2015). A review of leadership theories, principles and styles and their relevance to educational management. Management, 5(1), 6–14. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.mm.20150501.02
American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787
Arrindell, W. A. (2000). Phobic dimensions: IV. The structure of animal fears. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(5), 509–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00097-2
Babiloni, C., Buffo, P., Vecchio, F., Marzano, N., Del Percio, C., Spada, D., ... & Perani, D. (2012). Brains “in concert”: frontal oscillatory alpha rhythms and empathy in professional musicians. Neuroimage, 60(1), 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.12.008
Bailenson, J. N. (2021). Nonverbal overload: a theoretical argument for the causes of zoom fatigue. Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000030
Bakker, A. B., Schaufeli, W. B., Demerouti, E., Janssen, P. P., van der Hulst, R., & Brouwer, J. (2000). Using equity theory to examine the difference between burnout and depression. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 13, 247–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800008549265
Beckel, J. L. O., & Fisher, G. G. (2022). Telework and worker health and well-being: a review and recommendations for research and practice. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(7), 3879. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073879
Benenson, J. F., Markovits, H., Hultgren, B., Nguyen, T., Bullock, G., & Wrangham, R. (2013). Social exclusion: more important to human females than males. PloS One, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055851
Berg-Beckhoff, G., Nielsen, G., & Ladekjær Larsen, E. (2017). Use of information communication technology and stress, burnout, and mental health in older, middle-aged, and younger workers - results from a systematic review. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 23(2), 160–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/10773525.2018.1436015
Betzig, L. L. (1986). Despotism and differential reproduction: A Darwinian view of history. Aldine Publishing Co.
Bianchi, R., & da Silva Nogueira, D. (2019). Burnout is associated with a depressive interpretation style. Stress and Health, 35(5), 642–649. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2897
Bianchi, R., & Schonfeld, I. S. (2018). Burnout-depression overlap: nomological network examination and factor-analytic approach. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 59(5), 532–539. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12460
Bianchi, R., Schonfeld, I. S., & Laurent, E. (2014). Is burnout a depressive disorder? A reexamination with special focus on atypical depression. International Journal of Stress Management, 21(4), 307.
Bianchi, R., Schonfeld, I. S., & Laurent, E. (2015). Interpersonal rejection sensitivity predicts burnout: a prospective study. Personality and Individual Differences, 75, 216–219.
Bianchi, R., Schonfeld, I. S., & Verkuilen, J. (2020). A five-sample confirmatory factor analytic study of burnout-depression overlap. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 76(4), 801–821. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22927
Buunk, A. P., & Fisher, M. (2009). Individual differences in intrasexual competition. Evolutionary Psychology, 7(1), 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1556/JEP.7.2009.1.5
Buunk, A. P., Peíró, J. M., Rodríguez, I., & Bravo, M. J. (2007). A loss of status and a sense of defeat: an evolutionary perspective on professional burnout. European Journal of Personality, 21(4), 471–485. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.627
Buunk, A. P., Pollet, T. V., Dijkstra, P., & Massar, K. (2011). Intrasexual competition within organizations. In G. Saad (Ed.), Evolutionary psychology in the business sciences (pp. 41–70). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-92784-6_3
Camilleri, T., Rockey, S., & Dunbar, R. (2023). The Social Brain: The Psychology of Successful Groups. Cornerstone.
Case, C. R., & Maner, J. K. (2014). Divide and conquer: When and why leaders undermine the cohesive fabric of their group. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(6), https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038201
Cieslak, R., Shoji, K., Douglas, A., Melville, E., Luszczynska, A., & Benight, C. C. (2014). A meta-analysis of the relationship between job burnout and secondary traumatic stress among workers with indirect exposure to trauma. Psychological Services, 11(1), 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033798
Crawford, J. (2022). Working from home, telework, and psychological wellbeing? A systematic review. Sustainability, 14(19), 11874. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141911874
Davis, A. C., Dufort, C., Desrochers, J., Vaillancourt, T., & Arnocky, S. (2018). Gossip as an intrasexual competition strategy: sex differences in gossip frequency, content, and attitudes. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 4, 141–153.
De Cremer, D. (2002). Respect and cooperation in social dilemmas: the importance of feeling included. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1335–1341. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616702236830
de Waal, F. B. M. (1982). Chimpanzee politics: power and sex among apes. Harper & Row.
de Lima Garcia, C., Ramos, J. L. S., Castro, C. F. D. D., Smiderle, F. R. N., Santos, J. A. D., & Bezerra, I. M. P. (2019). Influence of burnout on patient safety: systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicina, 55(9), 553. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina55090553
Dean, K. K., Wentworth, G., & LeCompte, N. (2019). Social exclusion and perceived vulnerability to physical harm. Self and Identity, 18(1), 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1370389
Dewall, C. N., Macdonald, G., Webster, G. D., Masten, C. L., Baumeister, R. F., Powell, C., Combs, D., Schurtz, D. R., Stillman, T. F., Tice, D. M., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2010). Acetaminophen reduces social pain: behavioral and neural evidence. Psychological Science, 21(7), 931–937. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610374741
Dong, Y., Li, W., & Kou, Y. (2023). Physical attractiveness of potential competitors influences women’s gossip: effects of romantic jealousy and self-esteem. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 9(4), 407–418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-023-00371-2
Dunbar, R. I. M. (1993). Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16(4), 681–735. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00032325
Eckert, P. (1990). Cooperative competition in adolescent “girl talk.” Discourse Processes, 13(1), 91–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/01638539009544748
Eisenberger, N. I. (2012). The neural bases of social pain: evidence for shared representations with physical pain. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74(2), 126. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3182464dd1
Fauville, G., Luo, M., Queiroz, A. C., Bailenson, J. N., & Hancock, J. (2021a). Zoom exhaustion & fatigue scale. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 4, 100119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100119
Fauville, G., Luo, M., Queiroz, A. C. M., Bailenson, J. N., & Hancock, J. (2021b). Nonverbal mechanisms predict zoom fatigue and explain why women experience higher levels than men. SSRN Electronic Journal, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3820035
Flack, J. C., De Waal, F. B., & Krakauer, D. C. (2005). Social structure, robustness, and policing cost in a cognitively sophisticated species. The American Naturalist, 165(5), E126–E139. https://doi.org/10.1086/429277
French, D. C., Jansen, E. A., & Pidada, S. (2002). United States and Indonesian children’s and adolescents’ reports of relational aggres- sion by disliked peers. Child Development, 73(4), 1143–1150. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00463
Freudenberger, H. J. (1974). Staff burnout. Journal of Social Issues, 30(1), 159–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560
Fujiwara, K., Tsukishima, E., Tsutsumi, A., Kawakami, N., & Kishi, R. (2003). Interpersonal conflict, social support, and burnout among home care workers in Japan. Journal of Occupational Health, 45(5), 313–320. https://doi.org/10.1539/joh.45.313
Garcia, H. A., Benzer, J. K., Haro, E., & Finley, E. P. (2018). Occupational burnout among PTSD specialty clinic providers in the veterans health administration: perceptions of bureaucratic and political oversight. Mental Health & Prevention, 12, 42–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhp.2018.09.001
Georganta, K., Panagopoulou, E., & Montgomery, A. (2014). Talking behind their backs: negative gossip and burnout in hospitals. Burnout Research, 1(2), 76–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burn.2014.07.003
Geurts, S. A., Buunk, B. P., & Schaufeli, W. B. (1994). Social comparisons and absenteeism: a structural modeling approach. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24(21), 1871–1890. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1994.tb00565.x
Gilbert, P., & Allan, S. (1994). Assertiveness, submissive behaviour and social comparison. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33(3), 295–306. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1994.tb01125.x
Greenglass, E. R., Burke, R. J., & Fiksenbaum, L. (2001). Workload and burnout in nurses. Journal of Community & Applied Aocial Psychology, 11(3), 211–215. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.614
Halbesleben, J. R. (2006). Sources of social support and burnout: a meta-analytic test of the conservation of resources model. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(5), 1134–1145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.1134
Harvey, M. G., Buckley, M. R., Heames, J. T., Zinko, R., Brouer, R. L., & Ferris, G. R. (2007). A bully as an archetypal destructive leader. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 14(2), 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1177/1071791907308217
Hasin, D. S., Sarvet, A. L., Meyers, J. L., Saha, T. D., Ruan, W. J., Stohl, M., & Grant, B. F. (2018). Epidemiology of Adult DSM-5 major depressive disorder and its specifiers in the United States. JAsssMA Psychiatry, 75(4), 336–346. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4602
Henrich, J., & Gil-White, F. J. (2001). The evolution of prestige: freely conferred deference as a mechanism for enhancing the benefits of cultural transmission. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 165–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00071-4
Hodgson, K., & McGuffin, P. (2013). The genetic basis of depression. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 14, 81–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2012_225
Hoel, H., Glasø, L., Hetland, J., Cooper, C. L., & Einarsen, S. (2010). Leadership styles as predictors of self-reported and observed workplace bullying. British Journal of Management, 21(2), 453–468.
Jehn, K. A., & Shah, P. P. (1997). Interpersonal relationships and task performance: an examination of mediation processes in friendship and acquaintance groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 775–790. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.4.775
Jeung, D. Y., Kim, C., & Chang, S. J. (2018). Emotional labor and burnout: a review of the literature. Yonsei Medical Journal, 59(2), 187–193. https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2018.59.2.187
Johan Hauge, L., Skogstad, A., & Einarsen, S. (2007). Relationships between stressful work environments and bullying: results of a large representative study. Work & Stress, 21(3), 220–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370701705810
Jolly, P. M., Kong, D. T., & Kim, K. Y. (2021). Social support at work: an integrative review. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 42(2), 229–251. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2485
Judge, T. A., & Piccolo, R. F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 755–768. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.755
Kaburu, S. S., Inoue, S., & Newton-Fisher, N. E. (2013). Death of the alpha: within-community lethal violence among chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains National Park. American Journal of Primatology, 75(8), 789–797. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22135
Kafetsios, K., Nezlek, J. B., & Vassilakou, T. (2012). Relationships between leaders’ and subordinates’ emotion regulation and satisfaction and affect at work. The Journal of Social Psychology, 152(4), 436–457. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2011.632788
Kakarika, M., Taghavi, S., & González-Gómez, H. V. (2024). Don’t shoot the messenger? A morality-and gender-based model of reactions to negative workplace gossip. Journal of Business Ethics, 189(2), 329–344.
Khalid, A., Pan, F., Li, P., Wang, W., & Ghaffari, A. S. (2020). The impact of occupational stress on job burnout among bank employees in Pakistan, with psychological capital as a mediator. Frontiers in Public Health, 7, 410. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2019.00410
Kim, Y., Lee, E., & Lee, H. (2019). Association between workplace bullying and burnout, professional quality of life, and turnover intention among clinical nurses. PLoS One, 14(12), e0226506. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226506
Kivimäki, M., Elovainio, M., & Vahtera, J. (2000). Workplace bullying and sickness absence in hospital staff. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 57(10), 656–660. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.57.10.656
Kleinke, C. L. (1986). Gaze and eye contact: a research review. Psychological Bulletin, 100(1), 78–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.100.1.78
Knauft, B. M. (1985). Good company and violence: Sorcery and social action in a lowland New Guinea Society. Berkely University Press.
Koyama, Y., Nawa, N., Yamaoka, Y., Nishimura, H., Sonoda, S., Kuramochi, J., Miyazaki, Y., & Fujiwara, T. (2021). Interplay between social isolation and loneliness and chronic systemic inflammation during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan: results from U-CORONA study. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 94, 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2021.03.007
Kroth, P. J., Morioka-Douglas, N., Veres, S., Babbott, S., Poplau, S., Qeadan, F., Parshall, C., Corrigan, K., & Linzer, M. (2019). Association of electronic health record design and use factors with clinician stress and burnout. JAMA Network Open, 2(8), e199609. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.9609
Kurland, N. B., & Pelled, L. H. (2000). Passing the word: toward a model of gossip and power the workplace. The Academy of Management Review, 25(2), 428–438. https://doi.org/10.2307/259023
Lastovkova, A., Carder, M., Rasmussen, H. M., Sjoberg, L., Groene, G. J., Sauni, R., Vevoda, J., Vevodova, S., Lasfargues, G., Svartengren, M., Varga, M., Colosio, C., & Pelclova, D. (2018). Burnout syndrome as an occupational disease in the European Union: an exploratory study. Industrial Health, 56(2), 160–165. https://doi.org/10.2486/indhealth.2017-0132
LeepHunderfund, A. N., West, C. P., Rackley, S. J., Dozois, E. J., Moeschler, S. M., VaaStelling, B. E., Winters, R. C., Satele, D. V., & Dyrbye, L. N. (2022). Social support, social isolation, and burnout: cross-sectional study of U.S. residents exploring associations with individual, interpersonal, program, and work-related factors. Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 97(8), 1184–1194. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000004709
Leppänen, J. M. (2006). Emotional information processing in mood disorders: a review of behavioral and neuroimaging findings. Currrent Opinoin in Psychiatry, 19, 34–39. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.yco.0000191500.46411.00
Levin, J., & Arluke, A. (1985). An exploratory analysis of sex differences in gossip. Sex Roles, 12, 281–286.
Li, N. P., van Vugt, M., & Colarelli, S. M. (2017). The evolutionary mismatch hypothesis: implications for psychological science. Current Directions in Psychological Science., 27(1), 38–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417731378
Lieberman, D. (2014). The story of the human body: evolution, health, and disease. Vintage.
Ma, Y., Faraz, N. A., Ahmed, F., Iqbal, M. K., Saeed, U., Mughal, M. F., & Raza, A. (2021). Curbing nurses’ burnout during COVID-19: the roles of servant leadership and psychological safety. Journal of Nursing Management, 29(8), 2383–2391. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.13414
Mahadevan, N., Gregg, A. P., Sedikides, C., & de Waal-Andrews, W. G. (2016). Winners, losers, insiders, and outsiders: comparing hierometer and sociometer theories of self-regard. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 334. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00334
Maner, J. K., & Case, C. R. (2016). Dominance and prestige: dual strategies for navigating social hierarchies. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 3, 1–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2016.02.001
Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (1997). The truth about burnout: how organizations cause personal stress and what to do about it. Jossey-Bass.
Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 397–422. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397
Mazur, A., & Lamb, T. A. (1980). Testosterone, status, and mood in human males. Hormones and Behavior, 14(3), 236–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/0018-506X(80)90032-X
McAndrew, F. T., & Milenkovic, M. A. (2002). Of tabloids and family secrets: the evolutionary psychology of gossip 1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(5), 1064–1082.
Mehta, P. H., & Josephs, R. A. (2006). Testosterone change after losing predicts the decision to compete again. Hormones and Behavior, 50(5), 684–692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.07.001
Melnick, E. R., Powsner, S. M., & Shanafelt, T. D. (2017). In reply-defining physician burnout, and differentiating between burnout and depression. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 92(9), 1456–1458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2017.07.005
Menon, N. K., Shanafelt, T. D., Sinsky, C. A., Linzer, M., Carlasare, L., Brady, K. J. S., Stillman, M. J., & Trockel, M. T. (2020). Association of physician burnout with suicidal ideation and medical errors. JAMA Network Open, 3(12), e2028780. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.28780
Montag, C., Rozgonjuk, D., Riedl, R., & Sindermann, C. (2022). On the associations between videoconference fatigue, burnout and depression including personality associations. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 100409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2022.100409
Moore, M. T., & Fresco, D. M. (2012). Depressive realism: a meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(6), 496–509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.05.004
Mu, Y., Han, S., & Gelfand, M. J. (2017). The role of gamma interbrain synchrony in social coordination when humans face territorial threats. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 12(10), 16141623. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsx093
Nesse, R. M. (2000). Is depression an adaptation? Archives of General Psychiatry, 57(1), 14–20. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.14
Niedhammer, I., David, S., & Degioanni, S. (2006). Association between workplace bullying and depressive symptoms in the French working population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 61(2), 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.03.051
Nielsen, M. B., Matthiesen, S. B., & Einarsen, S. (2010). The impact of methodological moderators on prev.lence rates of workplace bullying. A meta-analysis. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(4), 955–979. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317909X481256
Northouse, P. G. (2021). Leadership: Theory and Practice. Sage publications.
Österman, K., Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M., Kaukiainen, A., Landau, S. F., Frączek, A., & Caprara, G. V. (1998). Cross-cultural evidence of female indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 24(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1998)24:1%3c1::AID-AB1%3e3.0.CO;2-R
Papaefstathiou, E., Apostolopoulou, A., Papaefstathiou, E., Moysidis, K., Hatzimouratidis, K., & Sarafis, P. (2020). The impact of burnout and occupational stress on sexual function in both male and female individuals: a cross-sectional study. International Journal of Impotence Research, 32(5), 510–519. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41443-019-0170-7
Price, J., Sloman, L., Gardner, R., Gilbert, P., & Rohde, P. (1994). The social competition hypothesis of depression. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 164(3), 309–315.
Pryce, C. R., Azzinnari, D., Spinelli, S., Seifritz, E., Tegethoff, M., & Meinlschmidt, G. (2011). Helplessness: a systematic translational review of theory and evidence for its relevance to understanding and treating depression. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 132(3), 242–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2011.06.006
Purvanova, R. K., & Muros, J. P. (2010). Gender differences in burnout: a meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77, 168–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.04.006
Reynolds, T. A. (2022). Our grandmothers’ legacy: challenges faced by female ancestors leave traces in modern women’s same-sex relationships. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 51(7), 3225–3256.
Riva, P., Wirth, J. H., & Williams, K. D. (2011). The consequences of pain: the social and physical pain overlap on psychological responses. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(6), 681–687. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.837
Rudman, A., & Gustavsson, J. P. (2011). Early-career burnout among new graduate nurses: a prospective observational study of intra-individual change trajectories. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 48(3), 292–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2010.07.012
Schaufeli, W. B., & Enzmann, D. (1998). The burnout companion to study and practice: a critical analysis. Taylor & Francis.
Schjelderup-Ebbe, T. (1935). Social behavior of birds. In C. A. Murchison (Ed). A Handbook of Social Psychology (pp. 947–972). Clark University Press.
Schuster, B. (1996). Rejection, exclusion, and harassment at work and in schools. European Psychologist, 1(4), 293–317. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.1.4.293
Schwartz, L., Levy, J., Endevelt-Shapira, Y., Djalovski, A., Hayut, O., Dumas, G., & Feldman, R. (2022). Technologically-assisted communication attenuates inter-brain synchrony. NeuroImage, 264, 119677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119677
Serrão, C., Rodrigues, A. R., Teixeira, A., Castro, L., & Duarte, I. (2022). The impact of teleworking in psychologists during COVID-19: burnout, depression, anxiety, and stress. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 984691. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.984691
Shephard, R. J., & Rode, A. (1996). The health consequences of modernisation': Evidence from circumpolar peoples (Vol. 17). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511983726
Sherman, L. E., Michikyan, M., & Greenfield, P. M. (2013). The effects of text, audio, video, and in-person communication on bonding between friends. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2013-2-3
Skogstad, A., Einarsen, S., Torsheim, T., Aasland, M. S., & Hetland, H. (2007). The destructiveness of laissez-faire leadership behavior. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12(1), 80. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.12.1.80
Stevens, A., & Price, J. (2000). Evolutionary psychiatry: a new beginning. Routledge.
Sun, T., Wang, J., Zhang, S., Shi, Y., Liu, B., & Wang, X. (2021). Status, causes and consequences of physicians’ self-perceived professional reputation damage in China: a cross-sectional survey. BMC Health Services Research, 21(1), 344. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06306-6
Suzman, J. (2020). Work: A History of How We Spend Our Time. Bloomsbury
Szymanski, C., Pesquita, A., Brennan, A. A., Perdikis, D., Enns, J. T., Brick, T. R., Müller, V., & Lindenberger, U. (2017). Teams on the same wavelength perform better: inter-brain phase synchronization constitutes a neural substrate for social facilitation. NeuroImage, 152, 425–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.03.013
Teo, A. R., Markwardt, S., & Hinton, L. (2019). Using Skype to beat the blues: longitudinal data from a national representative sample. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(3), 254–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2018.10.014
Tien, I. S., Imundo, M. N., & Bjork, E. L. (2023). Viewing oneself during synchronous online learning increases appearance anxiety and decreases memory for lecture content. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 37(2), 443–451. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.4048
Training Industry (2021). Size of the Training Industry. Retrieved May 5, 2023 from https://trainingindustry.com/wiki/learning-services-and-outsourcing/size-of-training-industry/
Tse, W. S., & Bond, A. J. (2002). Serotonergic intervention affects both social dominance and affiliative behaviour. Psychopharmacology (berl), 161, 324–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-002-1049-7
Tsuno, K., & Kawakami, N. (2015). Multifactor leadership styles and new exposure to workplace bullying: a six-month prospective study. Industrial Health, 53(2), 139–151. https://doi.org/10.2486/indhealth.2014-0152
Valente, M. S. S., Wang, Y. P., & Menezes, P. R. (2018). Structural validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory and influence of depressive symptoms in banking workplace: unfastening the occupational conundrum. Psychiatry Research, 267, 168–174.
Van Vugt, M., & Smith, J. E. (2019). A dual model of leadership and hierarchy: evolutionary synthesis. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2019.09.004
von Känel, R., Bellingrath, S., & Kudielka, B. M. (2008). Association between burnout and circulating levels of pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines in schoolteachers. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 65(1), 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.02.007
Von Rueden, C. R., & Jaeggi, A. V. (2016). Men’s status and reproductive success in 33 nonindustrial societies: effects of subsistence, marriage system, and reproductive strategy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(39), 10824–10829.
Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R. E., Craske, M. G., Griffith, J. W., Sutton, J., Redei, E. E., Wolitzky-Taylor, K., Hammen, C., & Adam, E. K. (2014). Refining the candidate environment: interpersonal stress, the serotonin transporter polymorphism, and gene-environment interactions in major depression. Clinical Psychological Science: a Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 2(3), 235–248. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702613499329
Walters, G., & Raybould, M. (2007). Burnout and perceived organisational support among front-line hospitality employees. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 14(2), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.14.2.144
Wang, G., Oh, I. S., Courtright, S. H., & Colbert, A. E. (2011). Transformational leadership and performance across criteria and levels: a meta- analytic review of 25 years of research. Group & Organization Management, 36, 223–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601111401017
Watson, D. C. (2012). Gender differences in gossip and friendship. Sex Roles, 67(9–10), 494–502. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0160-4
Wetherall, K., Robb, K. A., & O’Connor, R. C. (2019). Social rank theory of depression: a systematic review of self-perceptions of social rank and their relationship with depressive symptoms and suicide risk. Journal of Affective Disorders, 246, 300–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.045
Williams, E. S., Rathert, C., & Buttigieg, S. C. (2020). The personal and professional consequences of physician burnout: a systematic review of the literature. Medical Care Research and Review, 77(5), 371–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077558719856787
Wilson, D. R. (1997). Evolutionary Epidemiology: Darwinian Theory in the Service of Medicine and Psychiatry. In S. Baron-Cohen (Ed.), Maladapted Mind: Classical Readings in Evolutionary Psychopathology (pp. 39–56). Psychology Press.
Woo, T., Ho, R., Tang, A., & Tam, W. (2020). Global prevalence of burnout symptoms among nurses: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 123, 9–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.12.015
Wood, R. E., Brown, R. E., & Kinser, P. A. (2022). The connection between loneliness and burnout in nurses: an integrative review. Applied Nursing Research: ANR, 66, 151609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnr.2022.151609
Wooddell, L. J., Kaburu, S. S. K., & Dettmer, A. M. (2020). Dominance rank predicts social network position across developmental stages in rhesus monkeys. American Journal of Primatology, 82(11), e23024. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23024
World Health Organization. (2022a). ICD-11: International classification of diseases (11th revision). Retrieved June 1, 2023, from https://icd.who.int/
World Health Organization. (2022b). Mental Health and COVID-19: Early evidence of the pandemic’s impact: Scientific brief. Retrieved July 2, 2023, from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-Sci_Brief-Mental_health-2022.1
Wrangham, R. W. (2019). The Goodness Paradox: The Strange Relationship between Virtue and Violence in Human Evolution. Pantheon Books.
Yu, T., Guo, M., Garza, J., Rendon, S., Sun, X. L., Zhang, W., & Lu, X. Y. (2011). Cognitive and neural correlates of depression-like behaviour in socially defeated mice: an animal model of depression with cognitive dysfunction. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 14(3), 303–317. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1461145710000945
Zuelke, A. E., Roehr, S., Schroeter, M. L., Witte, A. V., Hinz, A., Engel, C., Enzenbach, C., Thiery, J., Loeffler, M., Villringer, A., & Riedel-Heller, S. G. (2020). Are social conflicts at work associated with depressive symptomatology? Results from the population-based LIFE-Adult-Study. Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology (london, England), 15, 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12995-020-0253-x
Funding
No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
HG Wrote the main manuscript
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical Approval
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Garcia, H.A. Evolutionary Roots of Occupational Burnout: Social Rank and Belonging. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology 10, 50–70 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-024-00235-4
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-024-00235-4