Abstract
Objectives
Decision-making is often driven and guided by the evaluation of action effects and external cues on action outcomes, which are essential to optimize behavior in an adaptive manner. This work aimed at investigating decision-makers’ sensitivity to external cues (including positive and negative reinforcement) and their flexibility in using feedback to decide whether to stay or change the course of their choices. We also explored the neurofunctional correlates of individuals’ ability to re-assess their decisions in response to feedback, and its possible association with general decision-making styles.
Methods
A realistic decision-making task set in a professional context was devised and administered in addition to the General Decision Making Style (GDMS) inventory. During the task, neurofunctional correlates of affective regulation, cognitive engagement, and information-processing load were non-invasively measured via wearable EEG.
Results
Participants showed a tendency to maintain their decisions following positive reinforcement, or when no explicit feedback was provided. Surprisingly, some of them tended to stay with their decisions also following negative feedback. We observed lower cognitive effort, as marked by lower prefrontal beta power, following positive feedback. Finally, we reported negative correlations between GDMS Dependent style scores and task scores in the positive feedback and no-feedback conditions, along with a positive correlation between GDMS Spontaneous style scores and task scores in the no-feedback condition.
Conclusions
Our findings have implications for understanding adaptive and maladaptive decision-making in contexts in which feedback serves as a compass to orient one’s own performance and prevent the so-called cognitive inertia.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Data are available from the authors upon reasonable request.
References
Anderson, C. J. (2003). The psychology of doing nothing: Forms of decision avoidance result from reason and emotion. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 139–167. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.139.
Balconi, M. (2023). Why a dynamic multicomponential model of decision making: Some milestones and a preliminary tool. Neuropsychological Trends, 33, 9–16. https://doi.org/10.7358/neur-2023-033-balm.
Balconi, M., & Crivelli, D. (2010). Veridical and false feedback sensitivity and punishment-reward system (BIS/BAS): ERP amplitude and theta frequency band analysis. Clinical Neurophysiology, 121(9), 1502–1510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2010.03.015.
Balconi, M., Crivelli, D., Castiglioni, C., & Lozza, E. (2019). Social frame and tax compliance modulate electrophysiological and autonomic responses following tax-related decisions. Scientific Reports, 9, 4713. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41156-7.
Balconi, M., Angioletti, L., & Crivelli, D. (2020). Neuro-empowerment of executive functions in the workplace: The reason why. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(July), 1519. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01519.
Balconi, M., Losasso, D., Balena, A., & Crivelli, D. (2022). Neurocognitive impairment in addiction: A digital tool for executive function assessment. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 955277. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.955277.
Balconi, M., Acconito, C., Allegretta, R. A., & Crivelli, D. (in press). What relationship between metacognition and mental effort in executive functions? The contribution of neurophysiology. Behavioral Sciences.
Bastos, A. M., Vezoli, J., Bosman, C. A., Schoffelen, J. M., Oostenveld, R., Dowdall, J. R., De Weerd, P., Kennedy, H., & Fries, P. (2015). Visual areas exert feedforward and feedback influences through distinct frequency channels. Neuron, 85(2), 390–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2014.12.018.
Boyd, R. (2006). The puzzle of human sociality. Science, 314(5805), 1555–1556. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1136841.
Boyer, M., & Robert, J. (2006). Organizational inertia and dynamic incentives. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 59(3), 324–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2004.06.024.
Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. Neural Networks, 19(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001.
Burmeister, K., & Schade, C. (2007). Are entrepreneurs’ decisions more biased? An experimental investigation of the susceptibility to status quo bias. Journal of Business Venturing, 22(3), 340–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2006.04.002.
Cavanagh, J. F., & Frank, M. J. (2014). Frontal theta as a mechanism for cognitive control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(8), 414–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2014.04.012.
Cavanagh, J. F., Cohen, M. X., & Allen, J. J. B. (2009). Prelude to and resolution of an error: EEG phase synchrony reveals cognitive control dynamics during action monitoring. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29(1), 98–105. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4137-08.2009.
Chatrian, G. E., Lettich, E., & Nelson, P. L. (1985). 10% electrode system for topographic studies of spontaneous and evoked EEG activity. The American Journal of EEG Technology, 25, 83–92.
Chernev, A. (2004). Goal orientation and consumer preference for the status quo. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(3), 557–565. https://doi.org/10.1086/425090.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. II). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cohen, M. X., Elger, C. E., & Ranganath, C. (2007). Reward expectation modulates feedback-related negativity and EEG spectra. Neuroimage, 35(2), 968–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.11.056.
Crivelli, D. (2023). Assessing decision-making skills: Preliminary proof-of-concept data for DAssDec - Mod1STY and Mod2STR. Neuropsychological Trends, 33, 67–81. https://doi.org/10.7358/neur-2023-033-criv.
Crivelli, D., Balena, A., Losasso, D., & Balconi, M. (2022). Screening executive functions in Substance-Use Disorder: first evidence from testing of the Battery for Executive Functions in Addiction (BFE-A). International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-022-00928-5.
Crivelli, D., Allegretta, R. A., & Balconi, M. (2023). Physiology of risk-taking and risk management in realistic decision-making scenarios [Manuscript Submitted for Publication]. Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore.
Cunillera, T., Fuentemilla, L., Periañez, J., Marco-Pallarès, J., Krämer, U. M., Càmara, E., Münte, T. F., & Rodríguez-Fornells, A. (2012). Brain oscillatory activity associated with task switching and feedback processing. Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 12(1), 16–33. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-011-0075-5.
Curşeu, P. L., & Schruijer, S. G. L. (2012). Decision styles and rationality: An analysis of the predictive validity of the General decision-making style inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 72(6), 1053–1062. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164412448066.
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750.
Eidelman, S., Crandall, C. S., & Pattershall, J. (2009). The existence bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(5), 765–775. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017058.
Engel, A. K., & Fries, P. (2010). Beta-band oscillations–signalling the status quo? Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 20(2), 156–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2010.02.015.
Ertl, M., Hildebrandt, M., Ourina, K., Leicht, G., & Mulert, C. (2013). Emotion regulation by cognitive reappraisal — the role of frontal theta oscillations. Neuroimage, 81, 412–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.044.
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2003). In two minds: Dual-process accounts of reasoning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(10), 454–459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.08.012.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146.
Gal, D. (2006). A psychological law of inertia and the illusion of loss aversion. Judgment and Decision Making, 1(1), 23–32. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1930297500000322.
Gambetti, E., Fabbri, M., Bensi, L., & Tonetti, L. (2008). A contribution to the Italian validation of the General decision-making style inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(4), 842–852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.017.
Gibbons, P. T., & O’Brien, M. (2001). Socialisation and chief executive commitment to the status quo. Irish Journal of Management, 22(2), 143–172. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/socialisation-chief-executive-commitment-status/docview/207640985/se-2?accountid=9941.
Giorgetta, C., Grecucci, A., Zuanon, S., Perini, L., Balestrieri, M., Bonini, N., Sanfey, A. G., & Brambilla, P. (2012). Reduced risk-taking behavior as a trait feature of anxiety. Emotion, 12(6), 1373–1383. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029119.
Hodgkinson, G. P. (1997). Cognitive inertia in a turbulent market: The case of UK residential estate agents. Journal of Management Studies, 34(6), 921–945. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6486.00078.
Hodgkinson, G. P., & Wright, G. (2002). Confronting strategic inertia in a top management team: Learning from failure. Organization Studies, 23(6), 949–977. https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840602236014.
Holroyd, C. B., & Coles, M. G. H. (2002). The neural basis of human error processing: Reinforcement learning, dopamine, and the error-related negativity. Psychological Review, 109(4), 679–709.
Kahneman, D. (2003). A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality. American Psychologist, 58(9), 697–720. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.9.697.
Kerns, J. G. (2006). Anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortex activity in an FMRI study of trial-to-trial adjustments on the Simon task. Neuroimage, 33(1), 399–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.06.012.
Kerns, J. G., Cohen, J. D., MacDonald, A. W., Cho, R. Y., Stenger, V. A., & Carter, C. S. (2004). Anterior cingulate conflict monitoring and adjustments in control. Science, 303(5660), 1023–1026. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089910.
Korotkova, T., Ponomarenko, A., Monaghan, C. K., Poulter, S. L., Cacucci, F., Wills, T., Hasselmo, M. E., & Lever, C. (2018). Reconciling the different faces of hippocampal theta: The role of theta oscillations in cognitive, emotional and innate behaviors. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 85, 65–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.09.004.
Laureiro-Martínez, D., & Brusoni, S. (2018). Cognitive flexibility and adaptive decision‐making: Evidence from a laboratory study of expert decision makers. Strategic Management Journal, 39(4), 1031–1058. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2774.
Lee, D., & Seo, H. (2007). Mechanisms of reinforcement learning and decision making in the primate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1104, 108–122. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1390.007.
Loewenstein, G. F., Hsee, C. K., Weber, E. U., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267.
Luu, P., Tucker, D. M., & Makeig, S. (2004). Frontal midline theta and the error-related negativity: Neurophysiological mechanisms of action regulation. Clinical Neurophysiology, 115(8), 1821–1835. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2004.03.031.
Maner, J. K., Gailliot, M. T., Butz, D. A., & Peruche, B. M. (2007). Power, risk, and the status quo. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(4), 451–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206297405.
McClure, S. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science, 306(5695), 503–507. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1100907.
Michalareas, G., Vezoli, J., van Pelt, S., Schoffelen, J. M., Kennedy, H., & Fries, P. (2016). Alpha-beta and gamma rhythms subserve feedback and feedforward influences among human visual cortical areas. Neuron, 89(2), 384–397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.12.018.
Morelli, M., Casagrande, M., & Forte, G. (2022). Decision making: A theoretical review. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science, 56(3), 609–629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-021-09669-x.
Pace-Schott, E. F., Amole, M. C., Aue, T., Balconi, M., Bylsma, L. M., Critchley, H., Demaree, H. A., Friedman, B. H., Gooding, A. E. K., Gosseries, O., Jovanovic, T., Kirby, L. A. J., Kozlowska, K., Laureys, S., Lowe, L., Magee, K., Marin, M. F., Merner, A. R., Robinson, J. L., & VanElzakker, M. B. (2019). Physiological feelings. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 103, 267–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.05.002.
Raes, A. M. L., Heijtjes, M. G., Glunk, U., & Roe, R. A. (2011). The interface of the top management team and middle managers: A process model. Academy of Management Review, 36(1), 102–126. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2011.55662566.
Reyna, V. F. (2004). How people make decisions that involve risk. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(2), 60–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00275.x.
Ridderinkhof, K. R., Ullsperger, M., Crone, E. A., & Nieuwenhuis, S. (2004). The role of the medial frontal cortex in cognitive control. Science, 306(5695), 443–447. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1100301.
Samuelson, W., & Zeckhauser, R. (1988). Status quo bias in decision making. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 1(1), 7–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00055564.
Scheres, A., & Sanfey, A. G. (2006). Individual differences in decision making: Drive and reward responsiveness affect strategic bargaining in economic games. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 2(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-2-35.
Scott, S. G., & Bruce, R. A. (1995). Decision-making style: The development and assessment of a new measure. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55(5), 818–831. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164495055005017.
Sharfman, M. P., & Dean, J. W. Jr. (1997). Flexibility in strategic decision making: Informational and ideological perspectives. Journal of Management Studies, 34(2), 191–217. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6486.00048.
Silver, W. S., & Mitchell, T. R. (1990). The status quo tendency in decision making. Organizational Dynamics, 18(4), 34–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(90)90055-T.
Staw, B. M. (1981). The escalation of commitment to a course of action. The Academy of Management Review, 6(4), 577. https://doi.org/10.2307/257636.
Tanaka, S. C., Samejima, K., Okada, G., Ueda, K., Okamoto, Y., Yamawaki, S., & Doya, K. (2006). Brain mechanism of reward prediction under predictable and unpredictable environmental dynamics. Neural Networks, 19(8), 1233–1241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.05.039.
Thunholm, P. (2004). Decision-making style: Habit, style or both? Personality and Individual Differences, 36(4), 931–944. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00162-4.
van de Vijver, I., Ridderinkhof, K. R., & Cohen, M. X. (2011). Frontal oscillatory dynamics predict feedback learning and action adjustment. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(12), 4106–4121. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00110.
Völlm, B., Richardson, P., McKie, S., Elliott, R., Dolan, M., & Deakin, B. (2007). Neuronal correlates of reward and loss in cluster B personality disorders: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 156(2), 151–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2007.04.008.
Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 625–636. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196322.
Wróbel, A. (2000). Beta activity: A carrier for visual attention. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis, 60(2), 247–260.
Yen, H. R., & Chuang, S. C. (2008). The effect of incidental affect on preference for the status quo. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 36(4), 522–537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-008-0084-2.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
DC: Data curation, Investigation, Formal analysis, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing; RA: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft; MB: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing Interests
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic Supplementary Material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Crivelli, D., Allegretta, R.A. & Balconi, M. The “status quo bias” in Response to External Feedback in Decision-Makers. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology 9, 426–441 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-023-00230-1
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-023-00230-1