The Role of Experiential Avoidance in Problematic Pornography Viewing

Levin, Michael E.; Lee, Eric B.; Twohig, Michael P.

doi:10.1007/s40732-018-0302-3

Original Article
Published: 18 July 2018

The Role of Experiential Avoidance in Problematic Pornography Viewing

Michael E. Levin¹,
Eric B. Lee¹ &
Michael P. Twohig¹

The Psychological Record volume 69, pages 1–12 (2019)Cite this article

875 Accesses
10 Citations
6 Altmetric
Metrics details

Abstract

Research suggests that online pornography use can have harmful consequences for some individuals, but the psychological processes that contribute to problematic viewing are unclear. This study sought to evaluate the role of experiential avoidance in the negative consequences of online pornography viewing in a small cross-sectional survey sample of 91 male college students who reported viewing. Results indicated that viewing pornography for experientially avoidant motivations was related to more frequent viewing and predicted self-reported negative consequences of viewing over and above other motivations (e.g., sexual pleasure, curiosity, excitement seeking). Although more frequent viewing was related to more self-reported negative consequences, this relation was consistently mediated by viewing for experiential avoidance in this sample. Study limitations included a homogeneous sample of primarily white students, a relatively low rate of reported pornography viewing, and use of only self-report assessment. Results suggest that viewing to avoid unwanted emotions might account for both frequent viewing and its negative consequences, highlighting a promising target for future interventions seeking to reduce problematic pornography viewing.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

Albright, J. M. (2008). Sex in America online: An exploration of sex, marital status, and sexual identity in internet sex seeking and its impacts. Journal of Sex Research, 45, 175–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490801987481.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Baltazar, A., Helm, H. W., McBride, D., Hopkins, G., & Stevens, J. V. (2010). Internet pornography use in the context of external and internal religiosity. Journal of Psychology & Theology, 38, 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164711003800103.
Article Google Scholar
Begotka, A. M., Woods, D. W., & Wetterneck, C. T. (2004). The relationship between experiential avoidance and the severity of trichotillomania in a nonreferred sample. Journal of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 35, 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2004.02.001.
Article Google Scholar
Bond, F. W., Hayes, S. C., Baer, R. A., Carpenter, K., Orcutt, H. K., Waltz, T., & Zettle, R. D. (2011). Preliminary psychometric properties of the acceptance and action questionnaire-II: A revised measure of psychological flexibility and acceptance. Behavior Therapy, 42, 676–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2011.03.007.
Article Google Scholar
Carroll, J. S., Padilla-Walker, L. M., Nelson, L. J., Olson, C. D., Barry, C. M., & Madsen, S. D. (2008). Generation XXX: Pornography acceptance and use among emerging adults. Journal of Adolescent Research, 23, 6–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558407306348.
Article Google Scholar
Chapman, A. L., Gratz, K. L., & Brown, M. Z. (2006). Solving the puzzle of deliberate self-harm: The experiential avoidance model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 371–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.03.005.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Chowla, N., & Ostafin, B. (2007). Experiential avoidance as a functional dimensional approach to psychopathology: An empirical review. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63, 871–890. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20400.
Article Google Scholar
Cooper, A., Putnam, D. E., Planchon, L. A., & Boies, S. C. (1999). Online sexual compulsivity. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 6, 79–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720169908400182.
Article Google Scholar
Crosby, J. M., & Twohig, M. P. (2016). Acceptance and commitment therapy for problematic internet pornography use: A randomized trial. Behavior Therapy, 47, 355–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2016.02.001.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Doring, N. M. (2009). The Internet’s impact on sexuality: A critical review of 15 years of research. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 1089–1101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.04.003.
Article Google Scholar
Duffy, A., Dawson, D. L., & Das Nair, R. (2016). Pornography addiction in adults: A systematic review of definitions and reported impact. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 13, 760–777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.03.002.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Grubbs, J. B., Volk, F., Exline, J. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2015). Internet pornography use: Perceived addiction, psychological dOGOIDistress, and the validation of a brief measure. Journal of Sex & Martial Therapy, 41, 83–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2013.842192.
Article Google Scholar
Hald, G. M., & Malamuth, N. M. (2008). Self-perceived effects of pornography consumption. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37, 614–625. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9212-1.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Ham, L. S., & Hope, D. A. (2003). College students and problematic drinking: A review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 719–759. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(03)00071-0.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Harper, C., & Hodgins, D. C. (2016). Examining correlates of problematic internet pornography use among university students. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 5, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.5.2016.022.
Article Google Scholar
Hayes, S. C., Wilson, K. G., Gifford, E. V., Follette, V. M., & Strosahl, K. (1996). Experiential avoidance and behavioral disorders: A functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 64, 1152–1168. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.64.6.1152.
Article Google Scholar
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2011). Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Google Scholar
Hooper, N., & Larsson, A. (2015). The research journey of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Book Google Scholar
Houghton, D. C., Compton, S., Twohig, M. P., Saunders, S., Franklin, M. E., Neal-Bernett, A., et al. (2014). Measuring the role of psychological inflexibility in trichotillomania. Psychiatry Research, 220, 356–361.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Kor, A., Zilcha-Mano, S., Fogel, Y. A., Mikulincer, M., Reid, R. C., & Potenza, M. B. (2014). Psychometric development of the problematic pornography use scale. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 861–868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.01.027.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Kraus, S. W., Martino, S., & Potenza, M. N. (2016). Clinical characteristics of men interested in seeking treatment for use of pornography. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 5, 169–178. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.5.2016.036.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Laier, C., Pekal, J., & Brand, M. (2014). Cybersex addiction in heterosexual female users of internet pornography can be explained by gratification hypothesis. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 17, 505–511. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2013.0396.
Article Google Scholar
Laier, C., Pekal, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Sexual excitability and dysfunctional coping determine cybersex addiction in homosexual males. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 18, 575–580. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2015.0152.
Article Google Scholar
Lee, E. B., Smith, B. M., Twohig, M. P., Lensegrav-Benson, T., & Quakenbush-Roberts, B. (2017). Assessment of the body image-acceptance and action questionnaire in a female residential eating disorder treatment facility. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 6, 21–28.
Article Google Scholar
Levin, M. E., Hayes, S. C., & Waltz, T. (2010). Creating an implicit measure of cognition more suited to applied research: A test of the mixed trial–implicit relational assessment procedure (MT-IRAP). International Journal of Behavioral Consultation & Therapy, 6, 245–262.
Article Google Scholar
Levin, M. E., Lillis, J., & Hayes, S. C. (2012a). When is online pornography viewing problematic among college males? Examining the moderating role of experiential avoidance. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 19(3), 168–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2012.657150.
Article Google Scholar
Levin, M. E., Lillis, J., Seeley, J., Hayes, S. C., Pistorello, J., & Biglan, A. (2012b). Exploring the relationship between experiential avoidance, alcohol use disorders and alcohol-related problems among first-year college students. Journal of American College Health, 60, 443–448. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2012.673522.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Lillis, J., Hayes, S. C., & Levin, M. E. (2011). Binge eating and weight control: The role of experiential avoidance. Behavior Modification, 35(3), 252–264. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445510397178.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
McBride, K. R., Reece, M., & Sanders, S. A. (2007). Predicting negative outcomes of sexuality using the compulsive sexual behavior inventory. International Journal of Sexual Health, 19, 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1300/J514v19n04_06.
Article Google Scholar
Poulsen, F. O., Busby, D. M., & Galovan, A. M. (2013). Pornography use: Who uses it and how it is associated with couple outcomes. Journal of Sex Research, 50, 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.648027.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Regnerus, M., Gordon, D., & Price, J. (2016). Documenting pornography use in America: A comparative analysis of methodological approaches. Journal of Sex Research, 53, 873–881. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2015.1096886.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Reid, R. C., Li, D. S., Gilliland, R., Stein, J. A., & Fong, T. (2011). Reliability, validity, and psychometric development of the pornography consumption inventory in a sample of hypersexual men. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 37, 359–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2011.607047.
Article Google Scholar
Reid, R. C., Carpenter, B. N., Hook, J. N., Garos, S., Manning, J. C., Gilliland, R., et al. (2012). Report of findings in a DSM-5 field trial for hypersexual disorder. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 9, 2868–2877. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.02936.x.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Sabina, C., Wolak, J., & Finkelhor, D. (2008). The nature and dynamics of internet pornography exposure for youth. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 11, 691–693. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.0179.
Article Google Scholar
Stein, D. J., Black, D. W., Shapira, N. A., & Spitzer, R. L. (2001). Hypersexual disorder and preoccupation with internet pornography. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1590–1594. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.10.1590.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Swails, J. A., Zettle, R. D., Burdsal, C. A., & Snyder, J. J. (2016). The experiential approach scale: Development and preliminary psychometric properties. Psychological Record, 66, 527–545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40732-016-0188-x.
Article Google Scholar
Twohig, M. P., & Crosby, J. M. (2010). Acceptance and commitment therapy as a treatment for problematic internet pornography viewing. Behavior Therapy, 41, 285–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2009.06.002.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Twohig, M. P., Hayes, S. C., & Masuda, A. (2006). A preliminary investigation of acceptance and commitment therapy as a treatment for chronic skin picking. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1513–1522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.10.002.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Twohig, M. P., Crosby, J. M., & Cox, J. M. (2009). Viewing internet pornography: For whom is it problematic, how, and why? Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 16, 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720160903300788.
Article Google Scholar
Wetterneck, C. T., Burgess, A. J., Short, M. B., Smith, A. H., & Cervantes, M. E. (2012). The role of sexual compulsivity, impulsivity, and experiential avoidance in internet pornography use. Psychological Record, 62, 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03395783.
Article Google Scholar
Wright, P. J., Bae, S., & Funk, M. (2013). United States women and pornography through four decades: Exposure, attitudes, behaviors, individual differences. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 1131–1144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0116-y.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Young, K. S. (2008). Internet sex addiction: Risk factors, stages of development, and treatment. American Behavioral Scientist, 52, 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764208321339.
Article Google Scholar

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Psychology, Utah State University, 2810 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT, 84322, USA
Michael E. Levin, Eric B. Lee & Michael P. Twohig

Authors

Michael E. Levin
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Eric B. Lee
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Michael P. Twohig
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael E. Levin.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare in relation to this manuscript.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Levin, M.E., Lee, E.B. & Twohig, M.P. The Role of Experiential Avoidance in Problematic Pornography Viewing. Psychol Rec 69, 1–12 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40732-018-0302-3

Download citation

Published: 18 July 2018
Issue Date: 15 March 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40732-018-0302-3

Keywords

Experiential avoidance
Acceptance and commitment therapy
Mindfulness
Pornography
Internet addiction