Skip to main content
Log in

Factors Related to School Psychologists’ Confidence in Implementation of Behavior Intervention Plans

  • Published:
Contemporary School Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study explored school psychologists’ practices in the areas of developing behavior intervention plans (BIPs), conducting functional behavior assessments (FBAs), and behavioral consultation. Practitioners were asked to rate their level of confidence in the implementation with fidelity of the last BIP they developed. Relationships between these practices and school psychologists’ confidence levels were examined. Data were collected from a national sample of practitioners (n = 179). Overall, results suggest that school district supports, being mindful of potential barriers to implementation, certain components of the FBA process, and adhering to best practices in behavioral consultation can have substantial positive impacts on a school psychologist’s confidence in the treatment integrity and maintenance of BIPs over time. Implications for practice are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, C. M., Rodriguez, B. J., & Campbell, A. (2015). Functional behavior assessment in schools: Current status and future directions. Journal of Behavioral Education, 24(3), 338–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-015-9226-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bambara, L., Goh, A., Kern, L., & Caskie, G. (2012). Perceived barriers and enablers to implementing individualized positive behavioral interventions and supports in school settings. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14, 228–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benazzi, L., Horner, R. H., & Good, R. H. (2006). Effects of behavior support team composition on the technical adequacy and contextual fit of behavior support plans. The Journal of Special Education, 40(3), 160–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergan, J. R., & Kratochwill, T. R. (1990). Behavioral consultation and therapy. Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blood, E., & Neel, R. S. (2007). From FBA to implementation: A look at what is actually being delivered. Education & Treatment of Children, 30, 67–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buckman, M. M., Lane, K. L., Common, E. A., Royer, D. J., Oakes, W. P., Allen, G. E., Lane, K. S., & Brunsting, N. C. (2021). Treatment integrity of primary (Tier 1) prevention efforts in tiered systems: Mapping the literature. Education & Treatment of Children, 44(3), 145–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, M. K., Wiley H. I., & Viglietta, E. (2008). Best practices in implementing effective problem-solving teams. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V 1633 – 1644. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). Results from the school health policies and practices study. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from http://cdc.gov/healthyyouth/shpps/2012/pdf/shpps-results_2012.pdf

  • Cochrane, W. S., Sanetti, L. M. H., & Minster, M. C. (2019). School psychologists’ beliefs and practices about treatment integrity in 2008 and 2017. Psychology in the Schools, 56, 295–305. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, B. G. (2002). Inclusive attitudes, strengths, and weaknesses of pre-service general educators enrolled in a curriculum infusion teacher preparation program. Teacher Education and Special Education, 25, 262–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Couvillon, M. A., Bullock, L. M., & Gable, R. A. (2009). Tracking behavior assessment methodology and support strategies: A national survey of how schools utilize functional behavioral assessments and behavior intervention plans. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 14(3), 215–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632750903073459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cumming, T. M., & O’Neill, S. C. (2019). Using data-based individualization to intensify behavioral interventions. Intervention in School and Clinic, 54(5), 280–285. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451218819203

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Detrich, R. (1999). Increasing treatment fidelity by matching interventions to contextual variables within the educational setting. School Psychology Review, 28, 608–620.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DiGennaro, F. D., Martens, B. K., & McIntyre, L. L. (2005). Increasing treatment integrity through negative reinforcement: Effects on teacher and student behavior. School Psychology Review, 34, 220–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, W. H., Magee, S. K., & Ellis, J. (2002). Identifying the effects of idiosyncratic variables on functional analysis outcomes: A case study. Education and Treatment of Children, 25(3), 317–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erchul, W., & Young, H. (2014) Best practices in school consultation. In P. Harrison & A. Thomas (Eds). Best practices in school psychology: Data based and collaborative decision making 449–460. Bethesda, MD: NASP.

  • Ervin, R. A., Radford, P. M., Bertsch, K., Piper, A. L., Ehrhardt, K. E., & Poling, A. (2001). A descriptive analysis of the empirical literature on school-based functional assessment. School Psychology Review, 30, 193–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Filter, K. J., & Horner, R. H. (2009). Function-based academic interventions for problem behavior. Education & Treatment of Children, 32(1), 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forman, S. G., Olin, S. S., Hoagwood, K. E., Crowe, M., & Saka, N. (2009). Evidence-based interventions in schools: Developers’ views of implementation barriers and facilitators. School Mental Health, 1(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-008-9002-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goh, A. E., & Bambara, L. M. (2012). Individualized positive behavior support in school settings: A meta-analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 33(5), 271–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, M. T., Weissberg, R. P., O’Brien, M. U., Zins, J. E., Fredericks, L., Resnick, H., et al. (2003). Enhancing school-based prevention and youth development through coordinated social, emotional, and academic learning. American Psychologist, 58, 466–474.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gresham, F. M. (1989). Assessment of treatment integrity in school consultation and prereferral intervention. School Psychology Review, 18(1), 37–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gresham, F. M., McIntyre, L. L., Olson-Tinker, H., Dolstra, L., McLaughlin, V., & Van, M. (2004). Relevance of functional behavioral assessment research for school-based interventions and positive behavioral support. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 25, 19–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, B. D., Wills, H. P., Kamps, D. M., & Greenwood, C. R. (2014). The effects of function-based self-management interventions on student behavior. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 22(3), 149–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108–446, 20 U.S.C § 1400 et seq. (2004).

  • Ingram, K., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Sugai, G. (2005). Function-based intervention planning: Comparing the effectiveness of FBA indicated and contra-indicated intervention plans. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7, 224–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, A.H., Goldberg, T.S., Hinant, R.L., & Couch, L.K. (2018). Trends and practices in functional behavior assessments completed by school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools https://doi.org/10.1002/PITS.22191

  • Kern, L., Hilt, A. M., & Gresham, F. (2004). An evaluation of the functional behavioral assessment process used with students with or at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Education and Treatment of Children, 27(4), 440–452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klingner, J. K., Ahwee, S., Pilonieta, P., & Menendez, R. (2003). Barriers and facilitators in scaling up research-based practices. Exceptional Children, 69(4), 411–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knoster, T. (2000). Understanding the difference and relationship between functional behavioral assessments and manifestation determinations. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2, 53–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kratochwill, T. R., Altschaefl, M. R., & Bice-Urbach, B. (2014). Best practices in school-based problem-solving consultation: Applications in prevention and intervention systems. In P. Harrison & A. Thomas (Eds). Best practices in school psychology: Data based and collaborative decision making 472–474. Bethesda, MD: NASP.

  • Lane, K. L., Bocian, K. M., MacMillan, D. L., & Gresham, F. M. (2004). Treatment integrity: An essential—but often forgotten—component of school-based interventions. Preventing School Failure, 48(3), 36–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lane, K. L., Oakes, W. P., Lusk, M. E., Cantwell, E. D., & Schatschneider, C. (2016). Screening for intensive intervention needs in secondary schools: Directions for the future. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 24, 159–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, T. J., Hudson, S., Richter, M., & Johnson, N. (2004). Scientifically supported practices in emotional and behavioral disorders: A proposed approach and brief review of current practices. Behavior Disorders, 29, 247–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Long, A. C. J., Hagermoser Sanetti, L. M., Collier-Meek, M. A., Gallucci, J., Altschaefl, M., & Kratochwill, T. R. (2016). An exploratory investigation of teachers’ intervention planning and perceived implementation barriers. Journal of School Psychology, 55, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2015.12.002

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maggin, D. M., Wehby, J. H., Farmer, T. W., & Brooks, D. S. (2016). Intensive intervention for students with emotional and behavioral disorders: Issues, theory, and future directions. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 24(3), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426616661498

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 397–422.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh, K., Brown, J. A., & Borgmeier, C. J. (2008). Validity of functional behavior assessment within a Response To Intervention framework: Evidence, recommended practice, and future directions. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 34(1), 6–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. (2019). Mplus. The comprehensive modelling program for applied researchers: user’s guide, 5.

  • Noell, G. H., & Gansle, K. A. (2014). Research examining the relationships between consultation procedures, treatment integrity, and outcomes. In W. P. Erchul & S. M. Sheridan (Eds.), Handbook of research in school consultation (2nd ed., pp. 386–408). Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noell, G. H., & Witt, J. C. (1998). Toward a behavior analytic approach to consultation. In T. S. Watson & F. M. Gresham (Eds.), Handbook of child behavior therapy (pp. 41–57). Plenum Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Oram, L., Owens, S., & Maras, M. (2016). Functional behavior assessments and behavior intervention plans in rural schools: An exploration of the need, barriers, and recommendations. Preventing School Failure, 60(4), 305–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2016.1144555

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Restori, A. F., Gresham, F. M., Chang, T., Lee, H. B., & Laija-Rodriquez, W. (2007). Functional assessment-based interventions for children at-risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. California School Psychologist, 12, 9–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roach, W. T., Lawton, K., & Elliott, S. N. (2014) Best practices in facilitating and evaluating the integrity of school-based interventions. In P. Harrison & A. Thomas (Eds). Best practices in school psychology: Data based and collaborative decision making 133–146. Bethesda, MD: NASP.

  • Sanetti, L. H., & Kratochwill, T. R. (2008). Treatment integrity in behavioral consultation: Measurement, promotion, and outcomes. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 4(1), 95–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sasso, G. M., Conroy, M. A., Peck Stichter, J., & Fox, J. J. (2001). Slowing down the bandwagon: The misapplication of functional assessment for students with emotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 282–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schilling, E. J., Randolph, M., & Boan-Lenzo, C. (2018). Job burnout in school psychology: How big is the problem? Contemporary School Psychology, 22(3), 324–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, T. M., Anderson, C. M., & Spaulding, S. A. (2008). Strategies for developing and carrying out functional assessment and behavior intervention planning. Preventing School Failure, 52, 39–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheridan, S. M., Kratochwill, T. R., & Elliot, S. N. (1990). Behavioral consultation with parents and teachers: Delivering treatment for socially withdrawn children at home and school. School Psychology Review, 19, 33–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steege, M. W., Pratt, J. L., Wickerd, G., Guare, R., & Watson, T. S. (2019). Conducting school-based functional behavioral assessments: A practitioner’s guide (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.

  • Sterling-Turner, H. E., Robinson, S. L., & Wilczynski, S. M. (2001). Functional assessment of distracting and disruptive behaviors in the school setting. School Psychology Review, 30(2), 211–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strickland-Cohen, M. K., & Horner, R. H. (2015). Typical school personnel developing and implementing basic behavior support plans. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 17(2), 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300714554714

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sugai, G., Horner, R., Dunlap, G., Hieneman, M., Lewis, T., Nelson, M., Scott, T., Liaupsin, C., Sailor, W., Turnbull, A., Rutherford, H., Wickham, D., Ruef, M., & Wilcox, B. (1999). Applying positive behavioral support and functional behavior assessment in schools. Technical Assistance Guide 1, Version 1.4.3. Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support (OSEP), Washington, DC.

  • The Center for Health and Health Care in Schools. (2014). The impact of school-connected behavioral and emotional health interventions on student academic performance. http://healthinschools.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/CHHCS_2014-Annotated-Bibliography-FINAL1.pdf

  • Van Acker, R., Boreson, L., Gable, R. A., & Potterton, T. (2005). Are we on the right course? Lessons learned about current FBA/BIP practices in schools. Journal of Behavioral Education, 14(1), 35–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walcott, M. C., Charvat, L. J., McNamara, K., & Hyson., D. (2018). Results from the NASP 2015 membership survey, part one: Demographics and employment conditions. [Research Report]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

  • Zins, J. E., & Erchul, W. P. (2002). Best practices in school consultation. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology IV 625 – 643. Bethesda. MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

  • Zirkel, P. A. (2011). State special education laws for functional behavioral assessments and behavior intervention plans. Behavioral Disorders, 36, 262–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge Melissa A. Collier-Meek, Evan H. Dart, and Aaron J. Fischer for their valuable feedback regarding the survey.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Adam D. Weaver.

Ethics declarations

Consent to Participate

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Cormaci, M., Weaver, A.D. & Santo, J.B. Factors Related to School Psychologists’ Confidence in Implementation of Behavior Intervention Plans. Contemp School Psychol (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-022-00442-4

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-022-00442-4

Keywords

Navigation