Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Special Education Placement Trends: Least Restrictive Environment Across Five Years in California

  • Published:
Contemporary School Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The least restrictive environment (LRE) is the legal right for students with disabilities to be included and educated with their non-disabled peers. However, at a fundamental level, LRE can be misinterpreted and measured inconsistently, creating a contentious environment for some schools and families of students with special needs. In the current study, using descriptive content analysis, special education due process hearings in the State of California over a five-year period available through the Office of Administrative Hearings were examined in order to identify characteristics of the students involved in LRE litigation and trends of LRE cases across the years. Results revealed that students involved in LRE-related hearings were mostly male, English-speaking, and classified as having a special education eligibility category of autism. An increase in general education placement was shown, and a decrease in home-hospital instruction. Future directions and implications for the implementation of LRE for school psychologists and special education teams are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Benz, M., Lindstrom, L., & Yovanoff, P. (2000). Improving graduation and employment outcomes of students with disabilities: predictive factors and student perspectives. Exceptional Children, 66, 509–529.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell, W. H., & Blackwell, V. V. (2015). A longitudinal study of special education due process hearings in Massachusetts: issues, representation, and student characteristics. SAGE Open, 1–11. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015577669.

  • Browder, D., Wakeman, S., Spooner, F., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., & Algozzine, B. (2006). Research in reading instruction for individuals with significant cognitive disabilities. Exceptional Children, 72, 392–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browder, D., Spooner, F., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Harris, A. A., & Wakeman, S. (2008). A meta-analysis on teaching mathematics to students with significant cognitive disabilities. Exceptional Children, 74, 407–432.

    Google Scholar 

  • California Department of Education. (2016). Special Education Enrollment. Retrieved from https://www.kidsdata.org/topic/14/characteristics-of-children-with-special-needs/summary

  • California Department of Education. (2017a). California parent organizations. Retrieved from http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/se/qa/caprntorg.asp

  • California Department of Education. (2017b). Special Education Enrollment, by Disability. Retrieved from https://www.kidsdata.org/topic/14/characteristics-of-children-with-special-needs/summary

  • Carter, E. W., & Hughes, C. (2005). Increasing social interaction among adolescents with intellectual disabilities and their general education peers: effective interventions. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30, 179–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cope-Kasten, C. (2013). Bidding (fair)well to due process: the need for a fairer final stage in special education dispute resolution. Journal of Law and Education, 423, 501–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daniel R. R. v. State Board of Education (1989). 874 F.2d 1036 (5th Cir.).

  • Dessemontet, R. S., Bless, G., & Morin, D. (2012). Effects of inclusion on the academic achievement and adaptive behavior of children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 56, 579–587.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donvan, J., & Zucker, C. (2010). Autism’s first child. The Atlantic. Retrieved from: https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2010/10/autisms-first-child/308227/.

  • Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975). PL 94–142, 20 U.S.C. §§ 1400 et seq. 

  • Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District RE-1, 137 S. Ct. 988 (2017). 

  • Foreman, P., Arthur-Kelly, M., Pascoe, S., & King, B. (2004). Evaluating the educational experiences of students with profound and multiple disabilities in inclusive and segregated classroom settings: an Australian perspective. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 29, 183–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallegos, E. M. (2010). Least restrictive environment. Albuquerque, NM: Walsh, Anderson, Brown, Gallegos and Green, P.C. Retrieved from http://www.bie.edu/

  • Gaskin v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (2005). 389 F. Supp. 2d 628, 644 (E.D. Pa.).

  • Gilliam, J., & Coleman, M. (1981). Who influences IEP committee decisions? Exceptional Children, 48, 642–644.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gresham, F. M., MacMillan, D. L., & Bocian, K. M. (1998). Agreement between school study team decisions and authoritative definitions in classification of students at-risk for mild disabilities. School Psychology Quarterly, 13(3), 181–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guralnick, M. J. (2001). Early childhood inclusion: a focus on change. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardman, M. L., Drew, C. J., & Egan, M. W. (2014). Human exceptionality: school, community, and family. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartmann v. Loudoun County Board of Education, 24 IDELR 1171 (E.D. Va. 1996), rev'd, 118 F. 3d 996 (4th Cir. 1997).

  • Hill, D. (2009). Examination of case law (2007–2008) regarding autism spectrum disorder and violations of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Doctoral dissertation, Auburn University. Ann Arbor MI: ProQuest/UMI.

  • Hill, L., Warren, P., Murphy, P., Ugo, I., & Pathak, A. (2016). Special education finance in California. San Francisco: Public Policy Institute of California.

    Google Scholar 

  • IBM Corp. Released 2016. IBM SPSS statistics for windows, version 24.0. Armonk: IBM Corp.

  • Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. U.S.C.A., P.L. 101-476, (1990).

  • Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. U.S.C.A., P.L. 105-117, (1997).

  • Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 20 U.S.C.A. § 1400 et seq., P.L. 108-446 (2004).

  • Kim, Y. S., Leventhal, B. L., Koh, Y.-J., Fombonne, E., Laska, E., Lim, E.-C., Grinker, R. R. (2011). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in a total population sample. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(9), 904–912. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10101532.

  • Kurth, J. A., & Mastergeorge, A. M. (2012). Impact of setting and instructional context for adolescents with autism. Journal of Special Education, 46, 36–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurth, J. A., Morningstar, M. E., & Kozleski, E. B. (2014). The persistence of highly restrictive special education placements for students with low-incidence disabilities. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 39(3), 227–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merrell, K. W., Ervin, R. A., & Peacock, G. G. (2011). School psychology for the 21st century: foundations and practices (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, T. G. (2009). IEP facilitation: a promising approach to resolving conflicts between families and school. Teaching Exceptional Children, 41(3), 60–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, T. G., & Carranza, F. (2011). An examination of special education due process hearings. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 22(3), 131–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207311392762.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Association of School Psychologists. (2010). Standards for graduate preparation of school psychologists. Baltimore: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education (2016). Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) database. InDigest of Education Statistics 2016. Retrieved July 26, 2016, from https://www2.ed.gov/programs/osepidea/618-data/state-level-data-files/index.html#bcc.

  • Odom, S. L., Buysse, V., & Soukakou, E. (2011). Inclusion for young children with disabilities: a quarter century of research perspectives. Journal of Early Intervention, 33, 344–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Office of Administrative Hearings. (2016). Special education report archives. Retrieved from http://www.dgs.ca.gov/oah/SpecialEducation/Resources/SEReportArchive.aspx.

  • Office of Special Education Programs (2017). 39th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2017. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services. Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep/2017/parts-b-c/39th-arc-for-idea.pdf.

  • Park, M.-H., Dimitrov, D. M., & Park, D.-Y. (2018). Effects of background variables of early childhood teachers on their concerns about inclusion: the mediation role of confidence in teaching. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 32(2), 165–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2017.1417926.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinto, D., Pagnamenta, A. T., Klei, L., Anney, R., Merico, D., Regan, R., & … Betancur, C. (2010). Functional impact of global rare copy number variation in autism spectrum disorders. Nature, 466(7304), 368–372. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09146.

  • Provenzo, E. F., Jr., & Provenzo, A. B. (Eds.). (2009a). Least restrictive environment. In Encyclopedia of the social and cultural foundations of education, Vol. 3, (pp. 464–465). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412963992

  • Provenzo, E. F., Jr., & Provenzo, A. B. (Eds.). (2009b). Mental retardation and education. In Encyclopedia of the social and cultural foundations of education, Vol. 3, (pp. 495–497). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412963992

  • Sacramento City Unified School District Board of Education v. Rachel H., 14 F3d 1398 (9th Cir. 1994).

  • Schanding, G. T., Cheramie, G. M., Hyatt, H., Praytor, S. E., & Yellen, J. R. (2017). Analysis of special education due process hearings in Texas. SAGE Open, 7(2), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017715057.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shuran, M. B., & Roblyer, M. D. (2012). Legal challenge: characteristics of special education litigation in Tennessee schools. NASSP Bulletin, 96(1), 44–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192636511431009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spears, R., Tollefson, N., & Simpson, R. (2001). Usefulness of different types of assessment data in diagnosing and planning for a student with high-functioning autism. Behavioral Disorders, 26(3), 227–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swain, K. D., Nordness, P. D., & Leader-Janssen, E. M. (2012). Changes in preservice teacher attitudes toward inclusion. Preventing School Failure, 56(2), 75–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Census Bureau (2017). Population estimates, July 1, 2017, (V2017). Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/geo/chart/CA/PST045216.

  • U.S. Department of Education (2017). Office of Special Education Programs, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/programs/osepidea/618-data/state-level-data-files/.

  • Yada, A., & Savolainen, H. (2017). Japanese in-service teachers’ attitudes toward inclusive education and self-efficacy for inclusive practices. Teaching and Teacher Education, 64, 222–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.02.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yell, M. L. (1995). Least restrictive environment, inclusion, and students with disabilities: a legal analysis. The Journal of Special Education, 28(4), 389–404. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246699502800401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yell, M. (2006). The law and special education. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yell, M., Katsiyannis, A., Drasgow, E., & Herbst, M. (2003). Developing legally correct and educationally appropriate programs for students with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18, 182–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zirkel, P. A. (2001). Autism and the law: rulings and expert analysis. Horsham: LRP Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zirkel, P. A. (2002). Special education law update VII. West’s Education Law Reporter, 160, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zirkel, P. A., & Gischlar, K. L. (2008). Due process hearings under the IDEA: a longitudinal frequency analysis. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 21(1), 22–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zirkel, P. A., & Skidmore, C. (2018). Judicial appeal of due process hearing rulings: the extent and direction of decisional change. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 29(1), 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207317741242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Graduate School of Education, University of California, Riverside, 1207 Sproul Hall, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA

    Yasamine Bolourian

  2. California State University, Los Angeles, 5151 University Drive, Los Angeles, CA, 90032, USA

    Leigh Ann Tipton-Fisler & Jordan Yassine

Authors
  1. Yasamine Bolourian
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Leigh Ann Tipton-Fisler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jordan Yassine
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Yasamine Bolourian or Leigh Ann Tipton-Fisler.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Appendix A

This study utilized due process hearing data from the Office of Administrative Hearings (OAH) of the State of California. This appendix offers instructions on how to access the archival data. All instructions are outlined based on the procedures followed at the time of data analysis. It should be noted that the steps may change if the website design is modified by the State of California.

In order to access this data, the researchers visited the OAH website. Next, on the OAH home page, the “Special Education Division Main Page” tab was selected, followed by the “Search Decisions/Orders” option. Below the search box options on this page is an option “to view all decisions issued since July 1, 2005.” Once on this page, the researchers opened each report and identified hearings that took place within the fiscal year range of 2011 to 2015. Each relevant document was then perused to locate and code variables of interest (see Methods). Codes were recorded using SPSS version 24.0 (IBM Corp. Released 2016).

Website links:

OAH: http://www.dgs.ca.gov/oah/Home.aspx

Search decisions/orders: http://www.dgs.ca.gov/oah/SpecialEducation/searchDO.aspx

All decisions issued since July 1, 2005: https://www.documents.dgs.ca.gov/oah/seho_decisions/

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Bolourian, Y., Tipton-Fisler, L.A. & Yassine, J. Special Education Placement Trends: Least Restrictive Environment Across Five Years in California. Contemp School Psychol 24, 164–173 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-018-00214-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-018-00214-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation