Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Child Sexual Abuse, Military Sexual Trauma, and Psychological Distress among Male Military Personnel and Veterans

  • ORIGINAL ARTICLE
  • Published:
Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Previous research has demonstrated increased psychological distress and increased risk of revicitimization for survivors of child sexual abuse (CSA). However, little is know about the associations among CSA, military sexual trauma (MST), and psychological distress among male military personnel and veterans. These issues were examined in the present study in a sample of 328 male military personnel and veterans enrolled in college. Results indicated that participants with a history of CSA were significantly more likely to experience MST (50%) than participants without a history of CSA (4%). Depression, posttraumatic stress, and guilt were significantly higher among participants with CSA and/or MST as compared to those with no history of sexual victimization, even when adjusting for age and combat exposure. Guilt significantly mediated the relationship between CSA and current psychological distress.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aosved, A. C., Long, P. J., & Voller, E. K. (2011). Sexual revictimization and adjustment in college men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 12(3), 285–296. doi:10.1037/a0020828.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Artime, T. M., McCallum, E. B., & Peterson, Z. D. (2014). Men’s acknowledgment of their sexual victimization experiences. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 15(3), 313–323. doi:10.1037/a0033376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, M. E., Turchik, J. A., & Karpenko, J. A. (2014). Impact of gender on reactions to military sexual assault and harassment. Health and Social Work, 39(1), 25–33. doi:10.1093/hsw/hlu004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blosnich, J. R., Dichter, M. E., Cerulli, C., Batten, S. V., & Bossarte, R. M. (2014). Disparities in adverse childhood experiences among individuals with a history of military service. JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 1041–1048.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryan, C. J., Jennings, K. W., Jobes, D. A., & Bradley, J. C. (2012). Understanding and preventing military suicide. Archives of Suicide Research, 16, 95–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryan, C. J., & Morrow, C. E. (2011). Circumventing mental health stigma by embracing the warrior culture: lessons learned from the defender’s edge program. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42, 16–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cabrera, O. A., Hoge, C. W., Bliese, P. D., Castro, C. A., & Messer, S. C. (2007). Childhood adversity and combat as predictors of depression and post-traumatic stress in deployed troops. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33(2), 77–82. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.03.019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Classen, C. C., Palesh, O. G., & Aggarwal, R. (2005). Sexual revictimization: a review of the empirical literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 6, 103–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coffey, P., Leitenberg, H., Henning, K., Turner, T., & Bennett, R. T. (1996). Mediators of the long-term impact of child sexual abuse: perceived stigma, betrayal, powerlessness, and self-blame. Child Abuse and Neglect, 20, 447–455.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daigle, L. E., Fisher, B. S., & Cullen, F. T. (2008). The violent and sexual victimization of college women: is repeat victimization a problem? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 1296–1313.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Department of Defense. (2015). Provisional statistical data on sexual assault fiscal year 2014 provisional statistical: report to the president of the United States on SAPR.

  • Desmarais, S. L., Van Dorn, R. A., Johnson, K. L., Grimm, K. J., Douglas, K. S., & Swartz, M. S. (2014). Community violence perpetration and victimization among adults with mental illnesses. American Journal of Public Health, 104, 2342–2349.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dorahy, M. J., & Clearwater, K. (2012). Shame and guilt in men exposed to childhood sexual abuse: a qualitative investigation. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 21(2), 155–175. doi:10.1080/10538712.2012.659803.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D. M., McLeod, G. F. H., & Horwood, L. J. (2013). Childhood sexual abuse and adult developmental outcomes: findings from a 30-year longitudinal study in New Zealand. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37, 664–674.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., Ormrod, R., & Hamby, S. L. (2009). Violence, abuse, and crime exposure in a national sample of children and youth. Pediatrics, 124(5), 1411–1423. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-0467.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Follette, V. M., Polusny, M. A., Bechtle, A. E., & Naugle, A. E. (1996). Cumulative trauma: the impact of child sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and spouse abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 25–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gidycz, C. A., Coble, C. N., Latham, L., & Layman, M. J. (1993). Sexual assault experience in adulthood and prior victimization experiences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17, 151–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, M., Litz, B., Hsu, J., & Lombardo, T. (2004). Psychometric properties of the life events checklist. Assessment, 11(4), 330–341. doi:10.1177/1073191104269954.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harder, D. W., & Zalma, A. (1990). Two promising shame and guilt scales: a construct validity comparison. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55(3–4), 729–745.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2015). An index and test of linear moderated mediation. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 50, 1–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, W. C., & Slap, G. B. (1998). Sexual abuse of boys: definition, prevalence, correlates, sequelae, and management. JAMA, 280(21), 1855–1862. doi:10.1001/jama.280.21.1855.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoyt, T., Rielage, J. K., & Williams, L. F. (2011). Military sexual trauma in men: a review of reported rates. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 12, 244–260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Heeringa, S. G., Murray, S. B., Colpe, L. J., Fullerton, C. S., Hwang, I., et al., for the Army STARRS Collaborators. (2014). Thirty-day prevalence of DSM-IV mental disorders among nondeployed soldiers in the US Army: results from the Army study to assess risk and resilience in Servicemembers (Army STARRS). JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 504–513.

  • Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. (2001). The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 606–613.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lamoureux, B. E., Palmieri, P. A., Jackson, A. P., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2012). Child sexual abuse and adulthood interpersonal outcomes: examining pathways for intervention. Psychological Trauma, 4, 605–613.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lang, A. J., & Stein, M. B. (2005). An abbreviated PTSD checklist for use as a screening instrument in primary care. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(3), 585–594.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leskela, J., Dieperink, M., & Thuras, P. (2002). Shame and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 223–226.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacMillan, H. L., Fleming, J. E., Streiner, D. L., Lin, E., Boyle, M. H., Jamieson, E., et al. (2001). Childhood abuse and lifetime psychopathology in a community sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1878–1883.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mondragon, S. A., Wang, D., Pritchett, L., Graham, D. P., Plasencia, M. L., & Teng, E. J. (2015). The influence of military sexual trauma on returning OEF/OIF male veterans. Psychological Services, 12(4), 402–411.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, E. E., Smith, J. C., Farooqui, S. Y., & Surís, A. M. (2014). Unseen battles: the recognition, assessment, and treatment issues of men with military sexual trauma (MST). Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15(2), 94–101. doi:10.1177/1524838013511540.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien, C., Keith, J., & Shoemaker, L. (2015). Don’t tell: military culture and male rape. Psychological Services, 12(4), 357–365.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ogloff, J. R. P., Cutajar, M. C., Mann, E., & Mullen, P. (2012). Child sexual abuse and subsequent offending and victimization: a 45 year follow-up study. Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, 440, 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Resick, P. A., Williams, L. F., Suvak, M. K., & Gradus, J. L. (2012). Long-term outcomes of cognitive-behavioral treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder among female rape survivors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80, 201–210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rona, R. J., Jones, M., Sundin, J., Goodwin, L., Hull, L., Wessely, S., & Fear, N. T. (2012). Predicting persistent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in UK military personnel who served in Iraq: a longitudinal study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 46, 1191–1198.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rumstein-McKean, O., & Hunsley, J. (2001). Interpersonal and family functioning of female survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Clinical Psychology Review, 21, 471–490.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sable, M. R., Danis, F., Mauzy, D. L., & Gallagher, S. K. (2006). Barriers to reporting sexual assault for women and men: perspectives of college students. Journal of American College Health, 55(3), 157–162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schry, A. R., Hibberd, R., Wagner, H. R., Turchik, J. A., Kimbrel, N. A., Wong, et al. (2015). Functional correlates of military sexual assault in male veterans. Psychological Services, 12(4), 384–393. doi:10.1037/ser0000053.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Street, A., Stafford, J., Mahan, C., & Hendricks, A. (2008). Sexual harassment and assault experienced by reservists during military service: prevalence and health correlates. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development, 45, 409–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suris, A., Link-Malcolm, J., Chard, K., Ahn, C., & North, C. (2013). A randomized clinical trial of cognitive processing therapy for veterans with PTSD related to military sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(1), 28–37. doi:10.1002/jts.21765.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turchik, J. A., & Wilson, S. M. (2010). Sexual assault in the U.S. military: a review of the literature and recommendations for the future. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15(4), 267–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration. (2010). VHA directive 2010–033: Military sexual trauma (MST) programming. Retrieved from http://www.va.gov/vhapublications/ViewPublication.asp?pub_ID=2272.

  • Walker, J., Archer, J., & Davies, M. (2005). Effects of rape on men: a descriptive analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 69–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weathers, F., Litz, B., Herman, D., Huska, J., & Keane, T. (1993). The PTSD checklist (PCL): reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Paper presented at the annual convention of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, TX.

  • Whiffen, V. E., & MacIntosh, H. B. (2005). Mediators of the link between childhood sexual abuse and emotional distress: a critical review. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 6, 24–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whiffen, V. E., Thpomson, J. M., & Auge, J. A. (2000). Mediators of the link between childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 1100–1120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2002). The world health report 2002: reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/whr/2002/chapter4/en/index9.html.

  • Wyatt, G. E., & Newcomb, M. (1990). Internal and external mediators of women’s sexual abuse in childhood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 758–767.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zinzow, H. M., Grubaugh, A. L., Frueh, B. C., & Magruder, K. M. (2008). Sexual assault, mental health, and service use among male and female veterans seen in veterans affairs primary care clinics: a multi-site study. Psychiatry Research, 159(1–2), 226–236.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Center for Veterans Studies, The University of Utah, 260 S. Central Campus Dr, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA

    Andrea L. Wolfe-Clark, Craig J. Bryan, AnnaBelle O. Bryan, Mira L. Reynolds, Dianna Fuessel-Herrmann, Kirsi L. White & Julia A. Harris

Authors
  1. Andrea L. Wolfe-Clark
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Craig J. Bryan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. AnnaBelle O. Bryan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mira L. Reynolds
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Dianna Fuessel-Herrmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Kirsi L. White
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Julia A. Harris
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Craig J. Bryan.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not reflect the official policy or position of the United States Air Force, Department of Defense, or the U.S. Government.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wolfe-Clark, A.L., Bryan, C.J., Bryan, A.O. et al. Child Sexual Abuse, Military Sexual Trauma, and Psychological Distress among Male Military Personnel and Veterans. Journ Child Adol Trauma 10, 121–128 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-017-0144-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-017-0144-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation