Table 1 Overview of allergologically relevant insects and clinical findings presented in this article
From: Part I: Insect stings and bites—Beyond the realm of bee and wasp allergies
Order and family | Genus or species | Route of allergen exposure | Clinical manifestation | Disease transmission | Molecular allergen (WHO/IUIS) [99] | Distribution | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hymenoptera: Formicidae | Imported fire ant, IFA (Solenopsis invicta) | Sting, injection of venom | Painful sting, large LR, sterile pustule formation, Ven_tox, IgE-Anaphylaxis | No | Sol i 1‑4 | Native to South America, spreading to USA, Australia, Asia since mid-1950s | Tankersley (2015) [5] |
Red harvester ant (Pogonomyrmex barbatus) | Sting, injection of venom | Painful sting, large LR, Ven_tox, IgE-Anaphylaxis | No | NA | Southern USA, Mexico | ||
Red wood ant (Formica rufa) | Bite, spray with venom | Mild LR, IgE-Anaphylaxis rare | No | NA | Europe, North America | ||
Chinese needle ants (Pachycondyla chinensis) | Sting, injection of venom | Mild to large LR, IgE-Anaphylaxis | No | Pac c3 | East Asia, North America | Nelder (2006) [9] | |
Samsum ant (Brachyponera sennaarensis) | Sting, injection of venom | Mild to large LR, IgE-Anaphylaxis | No | NA | Middle East, Asia | Alsharani (2009) [21] | |
Jack jumper ant (Myrmecia pilosula) | Sting, injection of venom | Very aggressive, large LR, IgE-Anaphylaxis, Ven_tox | No | Myr p1‑3 | Tasmania, Australia | ||
Diptera: Tabanidae | Horse and deer flies (Tabanus, Chrysops, Haematopota) | Blood-sucking ectoparasite, allergen-containing saliva | Mild to large LR, IgE-Anaphylaxis | Transmission of diverse pathogens to humans is possible as an intermediate host or mechanically (contaminated blood on the mouth part of the fly) | NA | Global distribution | |
Diptera: Culicidae | Yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti) | Blood-sucking ectoparasite, allergen-containing saliva | Mild to severe immediate and delayed type LR (wheals and flares, itchy papules, papular urticaria, bullae, ecchymosis, Skeeter syndrome); IgE-Anaphylaxis possible but rare | Yellow fever, dengue fever, Zika fever, several other viral diseases | Aed a 1-11 | South America, Middle America, Southern USA, Africa, Southeast Asia, India, Australia | Simons (1999) [44], Reunala (1990) [45], Peng (2004) [42], Galindo (1998) [47], McCormack (1995) [48] |
Hemiptera: Reduvidae | Kissing bugs (Triatoma spp.) | Blood-sucking ectoparasite, allergen-containing saliva, parasite-laden (T. cruzi) feces | First bites: Little to no reaction, repeated exposure: cutaneous manifestations (erythema, papules, vesicles, hemorrhagic bullae). IgE-Anaphylaxis common | Chagas disease | Tria p 1 | South America, Middle America, Southern USA, Africa, Southeast Asia, India, Australia | Pinnas (1986) [81], Marshall (1986) [77, 78], Moffitt (2003) [79], Paddock (2001) [80] |
Hemiptera: Cimicidae | Bed bugs (Cimex lectularis, Cimex hemipterus) | Blood-sucking ectoparasite, allergen-containing saliva | Usual, common and complex local reactions; anaphylaxis not certain | No | NA | Worldwide | de Shazo (2012) [68] |
Phthiraptera/Pediculidae | Lice (Pediculus humanus capitis, corporis, pubis) | Blood sucking ectoparasite, allergen-containing saliva, airborne | Itch, dermatitis due to saliva, IgE-mediated reactions (asthma, nasal and ocular allergy) rare | Pediculus corporis: Transmission via feces of epidemic typhus (Rickettsia prowazekii), relapsing fever (Borrelia recurrentis), five-day fever (Bartonella quintana). Pediculus capitis and pubis: Not known to transmit disease | NA | Worldwide | Lafeber (1984) [86], Fernández (2006) [87], de las Marinas (2019) [88] |
Siphonaptera/Pulicidae | Common cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis felis) | Blood sucking ectoparasite, allergen-containing saliva | Intense pruritus and allergic dermatitis (especially in cats), papular urticaria | Cat scratch disease (Bartonella henselae), tapeworms, Flea-borne (murine) typhus (Rickettsia typhi) | Cte f 1‑2 | Worldwide | Benjamini (1963) [92], Bruet (2012) [93], Mc Dermott (2000) [94], Sabogal (2019) [95] |