Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Assessing Parameters of Reinforcement on Efficiency of Acquisition: A Systematic Review

  • Discussion and Review Paper
  • Published:
Behavior Analysis in Practice Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Discrete-trial training (DTT) is a common method of instruction used in early intervention amongindividuals with autism spectrum disorder and related neurodevelopmental disorders and is an effective method of teaching different skills such as tacting, listener responding, and matching. Delivery of effective reinforcers is a key component of DTT. Although general recommendations have been made for effective reinforcement delivery in DTT, no review has synthesized the available research on the efficiency of various reinforcer parameters on efficiency of acquisition. The current systematic review assessed the efficiency of various reinforcer parameters on acquisition in DTT. Results were idiosyncratic, and a general paucity of repeated measures examining specific reinforcer parameters within and across studies was observed. In general, (1) maintaining high levels of treatment integrity, (2) delivery of tangible (i.e. leisure items) or edible reinforcers in comparison with contingent praise as a reinforcer, and (3) delivery of edible reinforcers in comparison with other topographies of reinforcement were the most successful reinforcer parameter manipulations and always resulted in more efficient skill acquisition. The results of this review provide clinicians with information regarding what reinforcer parameter manipulations may be more or less likely to support efficient acquisition. The present review also provides considerations and makes recommendations for future research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

Not applicable

References

* = included in systematic review from search criteria, ** =included based on snowball search

  • *Addison, L. (2006). An examination of the differential outcomes effect when teaching discriminations to children with autism and other developmental disabilities. [Doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University]. LSU Digital Commons. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations/2116

  • Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (n.d.). BACB certificant data. https://www.bacb.com/BACB-certificant-data

  • **Boudreau, B. A., Vladescu, J. C., Kodak, T. M., Argott, P. J., & Kisamore, A. N. (2015). A comparison of differential reinforcement procedures with children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48(4), 918–923. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.232

  • *Campanaro, A. M., Vladescu, J. C., Kodak, T., DeBar, R. M., & Nippes, K. C. (2019). Comparing skill acquisition under varying onsets of differential reinforcement: A preliminary analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 53(2), 690–706. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.615

  • Cariveau, T., La Cruz Montilla, A., Gonzalez, E., & Ball, S. (2019). A review of error correction procedures during instruction for children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 52(2), 574–579. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.524

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cariveau, T., Batchelder, S., Ball, S., & La Cruz Montilla, A. (2020). Review of methods to equate target sets in the adapted alternating treatments design. Behavior Modification, 45(5), 695–714. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445520903049

  • **Carroll, R. A., Kodak, T., & Fisher, W. W. (2013). An evaluation of treatment-integrity errors during discrete-trial instruction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(2), 379–394. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.49

  • *Carroll, R. A., Kodak, T., & Adolf, K. J. (2016). Effect of delayed reinforcement on skill acquisition during discrete-trial instruction: Implications for treatment-integrity errors in academic settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 49(1), 176–181. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.268

  • Carroll, R. A., Owsiany, J., & Cheatham, J. M. (2018). Using an abbreviated assessment to identify effective error-correction procedures for individual learners during discrete-trial instruction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 51(3), 482–501. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.460

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Chong, I. M., & Carr, J. E. (2010). Failure to demonstrate the differential outcomes effect in children with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 25(4), 339–348. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.318

  • **Cividini-Motta, C., & Ahearn, W. H. (2013). Effects of two variations of differential reinforcement on prompt dependency. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(3), 640–650. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.67

  • **Clausen, K. A., Alden-Anderson, E., Stephenson, K., Mueller, A., & Klatt, K. P. (2007). The effects of enthusiasm on skill acquisition by children with autism. Journal of Speech & Language Pathology & Applied Behavior Analysis, 2(1), 32–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100205

  • DeLeon, I. G., Chase, J. A., Frank-Crawford, M. A., Carreau-Webster, A. B., Triggs, M. M., Bullock, C. E., & Jennett, H. K. (2014). Distributed and accumulated reinforcement arrangements: Evaluations of efficacy and preference. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 47(2), 293–313. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.116

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dib, N., & Sturmey, P. (2007). Reducing student stereotypy by improving teachers’ implementation of discrete-trial teaching. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40(2), 339–343. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2007.52-06

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Downs, A., Downs, R. C., Fossum, M., & Rau, K. (2008). Effectiveness of discrete trial teaching with preschool students with developmental disabilities. Education & Training in Developmental Disabilities, 43(4), 443–453. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23879675

  • Eikeseth, S., Smith, T., Jahr, E., & Eldevik, S. (2002). Intensive behavioral treatment at school for 4-to 7-year-old children with autism: A 1-year comparison controlled study. Behavior Modification, 26(1), 49–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445502026001004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Eldevik, S., Aarlie, H., Titlestad, K. B., Kazemi, E., & Elsky, G. (2020). Effects of functional discrimination training on initial receptive language in individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Behavior Modification, 44(5), 670–697.

  • Fienup, D. M., & Carr, J. E. (2021). The use of performance criteria for determining “mastery” in discrete-trial instruction: A call for research. Behavioral Interventions, 36(4), 756–763. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1827

  • *Fiske, K. E., Cohen, A. P., Bamond, M. J., Delmolino, L., LaRue, R. H., & Sloman, K. S. (2014). The effects of magnitude-based differential reinforcement on the skill acquisition of children with autism. Journal of Behavioral Education, 23(4), 470–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-014-9211-y

  • *Frank-Crawford, M. A., Borrero, J. C., Newcomb, E. T., Chen, T., & Schmidt, J. D. (2019). Preference for and efficacy of accumulated and distributed response–reinforcer arrangements during skill acquisition. Journal of Behavioral Education, 28(2), 227–257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-018-09312-7

  • Ganann, R., Ciliska, D., & Thomas, H. (2010). Expediting systematic reviews: methods and implications of rapid reviews. Implementation Science, 5(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-5-56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graff, R. B., & Karsten, A. M. (2012). Assessing Preferences of Individuals with Developmental Disabilities: A Survey of Current Practices. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5, 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391822

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • *Grindle, C. F., & Remington, B. (2004). Teaching children with autism using conditioned cue-value and response-marking procedures: A socially valid procedure. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 25(5), 413–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2003.09.003

  • Hailey, D., Corabian, P., Harstall, C., & Schneider, W. (2000). The use and impact of rapid health technology assessments. International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care, 16(2), 651–656. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266462300101205

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howard, J. S., Sparkman, C. R., Cohen, H. G., Green, G., & Stanislaw, H. (2005). A comparison of intensive behavior analytic and eclectic treatments for young children with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 26(4), 359–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2004.09.005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Joachim, B. T., & Carroll, R. A. (2018). A comparison of consequences for correct responses during discrete-trial instruction. Learning & Motivation, 62, 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2017.01.002

  • **Johnson, K. A., Vladescu, J. C., Kodak, T., & Sidener, T. M. (2017). An assessment of differential reinforcement procedures for learners with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 50(2), 290–303. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.372

  • *Kang, S., O'Reilly, M., Rojeski, L., Blenden, K., Xu, Z., Davis, T., Sigafoos, J., & Lancioni, G. (2013). Effects of tangible and social reinforcers on skill acquisition, stereotyped behavior, and task engagement in three children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(2), 739–744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2012.10.007

  • *Karsten, A. M., & Carr, J. E. (2009). The effects of differential reinforcement of unprompted responding on the skill acquisition of children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42(2), 327–334. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2009.42-327

  • Kazdin, A. E. (2011). Single-case research designs (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Keen, D., & Pennell, D. (2015). The use of preferred items in a word-learning task: Effects on on-task behaviour and learning outcomes of children with autism spectrum disorder. Australasian Journal of Special and Inclusive Education, 39(1), 56. https://doi.org/10.1017/jse.2014.16

  • **Kocher, C. P., Howard, M. R., & Fienup, D. M. (2015). The effects of work-reinforcer schedules on skill acquisition for children with autism. Behavior Modification, 39(4), 600–621. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445515583246

  • *Kodak, T., Clements, A., & LeBlanc, B. (2013). A rapid assessment of instructional strategies to teach auditory-visual conditional discriminations to children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7(6), 801–807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2013.02.007

  • *Koop, S., Martin, G., Yu, D., & Suthons, E. (1980). Comparison of two reinforcement strategies in vocational-skill training of mentally retarded person. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 84(6), 616–626.

  • Lafasakis, M., & Sturmey, P. (2007). Training parent implementation of discrete-trial teaching: Effects on generalization of parent teaching and child correct responding. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40(4), 685–689. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2007.685-689

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lang, R., van der Werff, M., Verbeek, K., Didden, R., Davenport, K., Moore, M., Lee, M., Rispoli, M., Machalicek, W., O’Reilly, M., Sigafoos, J., & Lancioni, G. (2014). Comparison of high and low preferred topographies of contingent attention during discrete trial training. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8(10), 1279–1286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2014.06.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Leaf, J. B., Dale, S., Kassardjian, A., Tsuji, K. H., Taubman, M., McEachin, J. J., Leaf, R. B., & Oppenheim-Leaf, M. L. (2014). Comparing different classes of reinforcement to increase expressive language for individuals with autism, Education & Training in Autism & Developmental Disabilities, 49(4), 533–546. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24582349

  • Lerman, D. C., Valentino, A. L., & LeBlanc, L. A. (2016). Discrete trial training. In R. Lang, T. Hancock, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Early intervention for young children with autism spectrum disorder (pp. 47–83). Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lovaas, O. I. (1987). Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 55(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.55.1.3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Majdalany, L., Wilder, D. A., Smeltz, L., & Lipschultz, J. (2016). The effect of brief delays to reinforcement on the acquisition of tacts in children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 49(2), 411–415. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.282

  • Markham, V., Giles, A., & May, R. (2020). Evaluating efficacy and preference for prompt type during discrete-trial teaching. Behavior Modification, 44(1), 49–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445518792245

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *McCormack, J., Arnold-Saritepe, A., & Elliffe, D. (2017). The differential outcomes effect in children with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 32(4), 357–369. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1489

  • *McCormack, J. C., Elliffe, D., & Virues-Ortega, J. (2021). Enhanced tact acquisition using the differential outcomes procedure in children with developmental and intellectual disability. The Psychological Record, 71(1), 55–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40732-02000429-8

  • McEachin, J. J., Smith, T., & Ivar Lovaas, O. (1993). Long-term outcome for children with autism who received early intensive behavioral treatment. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 97, 359–359.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McPhilemy, C., & Dillenburger, K. (2013). Parents' experiences of applied behaviour analysis (ABA)-based interventions for children diagnosed with autistic spectrum disorder. British Journal of Special Education, 40(4), 154–161. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8578.12038

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neil, N., Hansford, R., Young, K., & Zwick, L. (2020). The effect of instructional pacing on skill acquisition and maintenance for children with developmental disabilities. Journal on Developmental Disabilities, 25(1), 1–15.

  • *Northgrave, J., Vladescu, J. C., DeBar, R. M., Toussaint, K. A., & Schnell, L. K. (2019). Reinforcer choice on skill acquisition for children with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic replication. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 12(2), 401–406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-018-0246-8

  • Nottingham, C. L., Vladescu, J. C., & Kodak, T. M. (2015). Incorporating additional targets into learning trials for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48(1), 227–232. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.179

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Pacitto, G. O. (2019). An evaluation of the effectiveness of content and quality of praise as a reinforcer for skill acquisition in children with and without developmental delays [Doctoral dissertation]. Chicago School of Professional Psychology.

  • *Paden, A. R., & Kodak, T. (2015). The effects of reinforcement magnitude on skill acquisition for children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48(4), 924–929. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.239

  • Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., & Brennan, S. E. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71

  • *Pence, S. T., & St. Peter, C. C. (2015). Evaluation of treatment integrity errors on mand acquisition. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48(3), 575–589. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.238

  • *Polick, A. S., Carr, J. E., & Hanney, N. M. (2012). A comparison of general and descriptive praise in teaching intraverbal behavior to children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 45(3), 593–599. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2012.45-593

  • Rapp, J. T., & Gunby, K. (2016). Task interspersal for individuals with autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 49(3), 730–734. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.319

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reichow, B., & Wolery, M. (2011). Comparison of progressive prompt delay with and without instructive feedback. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(2), 327–340. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2011.44-327

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Remington, B., Hastings, R. P., Kovshoff, H., Degli Espinosa, F., Jahr, E., Brown, T., Alsford, P., Lemaic, M., & Ward, N. (2007). Early intensive behavioral intervention: Outcomes for children with autism and their parents after two years. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 112(6), 418–438. https://doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2007)112[418:EIBIOF]2.0.CO;2

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheinkopf, S. J., & Siegel, B. (1998). Home-based behavioral treatment of young children with autism. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 28(1), 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026054701472

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. (2001). Discrete trial training in the treatment of autism. Focus on Autism & Other Developmental Disabilities, 16(2), 86–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/108835760101600204

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T., Buch, G. A., & Gamby, T. E. (2000). Parent-directed, intensive early intervention for children with pervasive developmental disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 21(4), 297–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0891-4222(00)00043-3

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steege, M. W., Mace, F. C., Perry, L., & Longenecker, H. (2007). Applied behavior analysis: Beyond discrete trial teaching. Psychology in the Schools, 44(1), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • **Stevens, C., Sidener, T. M., Reeve, S. A., & Sidener, D. W. (2011). Effects of behavior-specific and general praise, on acquisition of tacts in children with pervasive developmental disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 666–669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.08.003

  • *Sy, J. R., & Vollmer, T. R. (2012). Discrimination acquisition in children with developmental disabilities under immediate and delayed reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 45(4), 667–684. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2012.45-667

  • Tarbox, R. S. F., & Najdowski, A. C. (2008). Discrete trial training as a teaching paradigm. In J. K. Luiselli, D. C. Russo, W. P. Christian, & S. M. Wilczynski (Eds.), Effective practices for children with autism: Educational and behavior support interventions that work (pp. 181–194). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/med:psych/9780195317046.001.0001

  • **Touchette, P. E., & Howard, J. S. (1984). Errorless learning: Reinforcement contingencies and stimulus control transfer in delayed prompting. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 17(2), 175–188. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1984.17-175

  • *Toussaint, K. A., Kodak, T., & Vladescu, J. C. (2016). An evaluation of choice on instructional efficacy and individual preferences among children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 49(1), 170–175. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.263

  • Turan, M. K., Moroz, L., & Croteau, N. P. (2012). Comparing the effectiveness of error-correction strategies in discrete trial training. Behavior Modification, 36(2), 218–234. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445511427973

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2013). Definition of youth [Fact sheet]. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/fact-sheets/youth-definition.pdf

  • Veritas Health Innovation. (n.d.). Covidence systematic review software. www.covidence.org

  • Vladescu, J. C., & Kodak, T. (2010). A review of recent studies on differential reinforcement during skill acquisition in early intervention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43(2), 351–355. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2010.43-351

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Watt, A., Cameron, A., Sturm, L., Lathlean, T., Babidge, W., Blamey, S., Facey, K., Hailey, D., Norderhaug, I., & Maddern, G. (2008). Rapid versus full systematic reviews: Validity in clinical practice? ANZ Journal of Surgery, 78(11), 1037–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1445-2197.2008.04730.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Weyman, J. R., & Sy, J. R. (2018). Effects of neutral and enthusiastic praise on the rate of discrimination acquisition. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 51(2), 335–344. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.440

  • Wolery, M., & Gast, D. L. (1984). Effective and efficient procedures for the transfer of stimulus control. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 4(3), 52–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112148400400305

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank Katherine Kudelko and Andrica Bjazevic for their assistance in the completion of this project.

Code Availability

Not applicable

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Cofrin Logan Center for Addiction Research and Treatment, University of Kansas, 1000 Sunnyside Avenue, Lawrence, KS, 66045, USA

    Sarah C. Weinsztok

  2. Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Kissel J. Goldman

  3. Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

    Iser G. DeLeon

Authors
  1. Sarah C. Weinsztok
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kissel J. Goldman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Iser G. DeLeon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sarah C. Weinsztok.

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of Interest

All authors declare that they each have no relevant conflicts of interest related to the preparation of this article.

Ethics Approval

Because the article was a synthesis of prior research, the article does not contain any studies conducted by the authors with human participants.

Consent to Participate

Not applicable

Consent for Publication

Not applicable

Concept Development

All authors contributed to study conception, analysis, and manuscript preparation. Design of search terms and data extraction were performed by Sarah Weinsztok and Kissel Goldman. The first draft of the article was written by Sarah Weinsztok. All authors commented on previous versions of the article and read and approved the final manuscript.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Weinsztok, S.C., Goldman, K.J. & DeLeon, I.G. Assessing Parameters of Reinforcement on Efficiency of Acquisition: A Systematic Review. Behav Analysis Practice 16, 76–92 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-022-00715-7

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-022-00715-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation