Abstract
A wide variety of procedures within behavior analysis use gradual change in stimuli, response requirements, reinforcement, or some combination thereof, to effectively change behavior. Such procedures include shaping, thinning, fading, and chaining. Collectively, gradual change procedures represent a conceptually systematic technology of behavior change with wide-ranging empirical support across diverse settings and contexts. However, navigating the gradual change literature can be challenging. Similar terms are used to describe functionally distinct procedures (e.g., stimulus fading, delay fading, demand fading), and distinct terms are used to describe functionally similar procedures (e.g., leaning, demand fading). I propose a taxonomy in which gradual change procedures are categorized according to the functional component of the contingency on which they act. Three broad categories are proposed: Gradual Changes in Discriminative Stimuli, Response Requirement, and Reinforcement. I provide examples of research in each category, across basic and applied settings, including terminology used by the author(s) to describe each procedure. Finally, I discuss benefits of this framework for consumers of the literature.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agrachov, M. (2019). Gradually transitioning to a new taxonomy: Thinning, shaping, and fading (Unpublished master’s capstone project). Rollins College.
Baum, W. M. (1993). Performances on ratio and interval schedules of reinforcement: Data and theory. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 59(2), 245–264. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1993.59-245
Bourret, J., Vollmer, T. R., & Rapp, J. T. (2004). Evaluation of a vocal mand assessment and vocal mand training procedures. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37(2), 129–144. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2004.37-129
Cooper, J., Heron, T., & Heward, W. (2019). Applied behavior analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson.
Dixon, M. R., & Cummings, A. (2001). Self-control in children with autism: Response allocation during delays to reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(4), 491–495. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2001.34-491
Dogoe, M., & Banda, D. R. (2009). Review of recent research using constant time delay to teach chained tasks to persons with developmental disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 44(2), 177–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445517699929
Eckerman, D. A., Hienz, R. D., Stern, S., & Kowlowitz, V. (1980). Shaping the location of a pigeon’s peck: Effect of rate and size of shaping steps. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 33(3), 299–310. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1980.33-299
Edwards, C. K., Landa, R. K., Frampton, S. E., & Shillingsburg, M. A. (2018). Increasing functional leisure engagement for children with autism using backward chaining. Behavior Modification, 42(1), 9–33.
Ferguson, D. L., & Rosales-Ruiz, J. (2001). Loading the problem loader: The effects of target training and shaping on trailer-loading behavior of horses. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(4), 409–423. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2001.34-409
Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. Appleton-Century-Crofts. https://doi.org/10.1037/10627-000
Findley, J. D. (1958). Preference and switching under concurrent scheduling. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1(2), 123. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1958.1-123
Fisher, W., Piazza, C., Cataldo, M., Harrell, R., Jefferson, G., & Conner, R. (1993). Functional communication training with and without extinction and punishment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1993.26-23
Fisher, W. W., Thompson, R. H., Hagopian, L. P., Bowman, L. G., & Krug, A. (2000). Facilitating tolerance of delayed reinforcement during functional communication training. Behavior Modification, 24(1), 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445500241001
Foxx, R. M. (1996). Translating the covenant: The behavior analyst as ambassador and translator. The Behavior Analyst, 19(2), 147–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393162
Galbicka, G. (1994). Shaping in the 21st century: Moving percentile schedules into applied settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(4), 739–760. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1994.27-739
Geiger, K. B., Carr, J. E., & LeBlanc, L. A. (2010). Function-Based treatments for escape-maintained problem behavior: A treatment-selection model for practicing behavior analysts. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 3(1), 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391755
Gorgan, E. M., & Kodak, T. (2019). Comparison of interventions to treat prompt dependence for children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 52(4), 1049–1063. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.638
Hagopian, L. P., Fisher, W. W., Sullivan, M. T., Acquisto, J., & LeBlanc, L. A. (1998). Effectiveness of functional communication training with and without extinction and punishment: A summary of 21 inpatient cases. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31(2), 211–235. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1998.31-211
Hagopian, L. P., Toole, L. M., Long, E. S., Bowman, L. G., & Lieving, G. A. (2004). A comparison of dense-to-lean and fixed lean schedules of alternative reinforcement and extinction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37(3), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2004.37-323
Hagopian, L. P., Kuhn, S. A. C., Long, E. S., & Rush, K. S. (2005). Schedule thinning following communication training: Using competing stimuli to enhance tolerance to decrements in reinforcer density. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 38(2), 177–193. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2005.43-04
Hagopian, L. P., Boelter, E. W., & Jarmolowicz, D. P. (2011). Reinforcement schedule thinning following functional communication training: Review and recommendations. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 4(1), 4–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391770
Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A., & Thompson, R. H. (2001). Reinforcement schedule thinning following treatment with functional communication training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(1), 17–38. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2001.34-17
Hayes, S. C. (1991). The limits of technological talk. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24(3), 417–420. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1991.24-417
Hodos, W. (1961). Progressive ratio as a measure of reward strength. Science, 134(3483), 943–944. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.134.3483.943
Johnson, B. L. (1973). The effect of three visual perceptual programs on the readiness of kindergarten children (unpublished dissertation). Texas A&M University.
Kincaid, S. L., & Lattal, K. A. (2018). Beyond the breakpoint: Reinstatement, renewal, and resurgence of ratio-strained behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 109(3), 475–491. https://doi.org/10.1002/jeab.433
Kuroda, T., Cook, J. E., & Lattal, K. A. (2018). Baseline response rates affect resistance to change. Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior, 109(1), 164–175. https://doi.org/10.1002/jeab.285
Lalli, J. S., Casey, S., & Kates, K. (1995). Reducing escape behavior and increasing task completion with functional communication training, extinction, and response chaining. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(3), 261–268. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1995.28-261
Lennox, D. B., Miltenberger, R. G., & Donnelly, D. R. (1987). Response interruption and DRL for the reduction of rapid eating. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20(3), 279–284. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1987.20-279
Libby, M. E., Weiss, J. S., Bancroft, S., & Ahearn, W. H. (2008). A comparison of most-to-least and least-to-most prompting on the acquisition of solitary play skills. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 1(1), 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391719
MacDuff, G. S., Krantz, P. J., & McClannahan, L. E. (1993). Teaching children with autism to use photographic activity schedules: Maintenance and generalization of complex response chains. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26(1), 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1993.26-89
Mazur, J. E., & Logue, A. W. (1978). Choice in a “self-control” paradigm: Effects of a fading procedure. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 30(1), 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1978.30-11
McIlvane, W. J., & Dube, W. V. (1992). Stimulus control shaping and stimulus control topographies. The Behavior Analyst, 15(1), 89–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392591
Mueller, M. M., Palkovic, C. M., & Maynard, C. S. (2007). Errorless learning: Review and practical application for teaching children with pervasive developmental disorders. Psychology in the Schools, 44(7), 691–699. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20258
Pace, G. M., Iwata, B. A., Edwards, G. L., & McCosh, K. C. (1986). Stimulus fading and transfer in the treatment of self-restraint and self-injurious behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 19(4), 381–389. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1986.19-381
Pace, G. M., Iwata, B. A., Cowdery, G. E., Andree, P. J., & McIntyre, T. (1993). Stimulus (instructional) fading during extinction of self-injurious escape behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26(2), 205–212. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1993.26-205
Piazza, C. C., Moes, D. R., & Fisher, W. W. (1996). Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior and demand fading in the treatment of escape-maintained destructive behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29(4), 569–572. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1996.29-569
Reynolds, G. S. (1975). A primer for operant conditioning (2nd ed.). Scott Foresman & Co..
Roane, H. S., Fisher, W. W., Sgro, G. M., Falcomata, T. S., & Pabico, R. R. (2004). An alternative method of thinning reinforcer delivery during differential reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37(2), 213–218. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2004.37-213
Sidman, M. (1960). Tactics of scientific research: Evaluating experimental data in psychology. Basic Books.
Stafford, D., & Branch, M. N. (1998). Effects of step size and break-point criterion on progressive-ratio performance. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 70(2), 123–138. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1998.70-123
Sweeney, M. M., & Shahan, T. A. (2013). Effects of high, low, and thinning rates of alternative reinforcement on response elimination and resurgence. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 100(1), 102–116. https://doi.org/10.1002/jeab.26
Terrace, H. S. (1963). Discrimination learning with and without “errors”. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1963.6-1
Weiner, H. (1982). Histories of response omission and human operant behavior under a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement. The Psychological Record, 32(3), 409–434.
Wiskow, K. M., Matter, A. L., & Donaldson, J. M. (2018). An evaluation of lag schedules and prompting methods to increase variability of naming category items in children with autism spectrum disorder. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 34(1/2), 100–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40616-018-0102-5
Zangrillo, A. N., Fisher, W. W., Greer, B. D., Owen, T. M., & DeSouza, A. A. (2016). Treatment of escape maintained challenging behavior using chained schedules: An evaluation of the effects of thinning positive plus negative reinforcement during functional communication training. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 62(3), 147–156.
Zarcone, J. R., Iwata, B. A., Smith, R. G., Mazaleski, J. L., & Lerman, D. C. (1994). Reemergence and extinction of self-injurious escape behavior during stimulus (instructional) fading. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(2), 307–316. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1994.27-307
Zygmont, D. M., Lazar, R. M., Dube, W. V., & McIlvane, W. J. (1992). Teaching arbitrary matching via sample stimulus-control shaping to young children and mentally retarded individuals: A methodological note. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 57(1), 109–117. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1992.57-109
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kincaid, S.L. Gradual Change Procedures in Behavior Analysis. Behav Analysis Practice 16, 117–126 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-022-00689-6
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-022-00689-6