Abstract
The most effective behavioral interventions are function based, which requires the identification of the behavioral function. A functional analysis is conducted to isolate and identify the environmental variables maintaining target behavior, and this method is effective across species. In domesticated dogs, mouthing is a common behavior and is considered problematic by many people. However, mouthing is not always simple to treat with standard interventions without identifying the function of the dog’s mouthing. Without efficacious interventions, undesirable behavior in companion animals may result in reduced welfare, an increased likelihood of relinquishment, or an increased probability of euthanasia. The purpose of this study was to provide a clinical demonstration of an owner-conducted functional analysis to identify the contingencies maintaining mouthing behavior in dogs and apply the results to owner-implemented function-based interventions to reduce mouthing. Identified functions included attention and tangibles, and owner-implemented interventions were successful at reducing mouthing in all three dogs.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Not applicable.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
References
Arkoosh, M. K., Derby, K. M., Wacker, D. P., Berg, W., McLaughlin, T. F., & Barretto, A. (2007). A descriptive evaluation of long-term treatment integrity. Behavior Modification, 31(6), 880–895. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445507302254.
Arnall, L. (1960). Some aspects of dental development in the dog—ii. Eruption and extrusion. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 1, 259–267. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.1960.tb06100.x.
Borchelt, P. L. (1983). Aggressive behavior of dogs kept as companion animals: Classification and influence of sex, reproductive status and breed. Applied Animal Ethology, 10(1), 45–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3762(83)90111-6.
Bowman, L. G., Fisher, W. W., Thompson, R. H., & Piazza, C. C. (1997). On the relation of mands and the function of destructive behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30(2), 251–265. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1997.30-251.
Casey, R. A., & Bradshaw, J. W. S. (2008). Owner compliance and clinical outcome measures for domestic cats undergoing clinical behavior therapy. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 3(3), 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2008.02.001.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Healthy pets, healthy people. https://www.cdc.gov/healthypets/pets/dogs.html
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Reversal and alternating treatments designs. In Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed., p. 187). Pearson.
Coppinger, R., Glendinning, J., Torop, E., Matthay, C., Sutherland, M., & Smith, C. (1987). Degree of behavioral neoteny differentiates canid polymorphs. Ethology, 75(2), 89–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1987.tb00645.x.
Dorey, N. R., Rosales-Ruiz, J., Smith, R., & Lovelace, B. (2009). Functional analysis and treatment of self-injury in a captive olive baboon. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42(4), 785–794. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2009.42-785.
Dorey, N. R., Tobias, J. S., Udell, M. A. R., & Wynne, C. D. L. (2012). Decreasing dog problem behavior with functional analysis: Linking diagnoses to treatment. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 7(5), 276–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2011.10.002.
Farmer-Dougan, V. (2014). Functional analysis of aggression in a black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata variegata). Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 17(3), 282–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888705.2014.917029.
Feuerbacher, E. N., & Wynne, C. D. (2016). Application of functional analysis methods to assess human-dog interactions. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 49(4), 970–974. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.318.
Fulton, A. J., Fiani, N., & Verstraete, F. J. M. (2014). Canine pediatric dentistry. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 44(2), 303–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2013.11.004.
Gazzano, A., Mariti, C., Alvares, S., Cozzi, A., Tognetti, R., & Sighieri, C. (2008). The prevention of undesirable behaviors in dogs: Effectiveness of veterinary behaviorists’ advice given to puppy owners. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 3(3), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2008.04.004.
Geiger, M., Gendron, K., Willmitzer, F., & Sánchez-Villagra, M. R. (2016). Unaltered sequence of dental, skeletal, and sexual maturity in domestic dogs compared to the wolf. Zoological Letters, 2, 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40851-016-0055-2.
Guy, N. C., Luescher, U. A., Dohoo, S. E., Spangler, E., Miller, J. B., Dohoo, I. R., & Bate, L. A. (2001). Risk factors for dog bites to owners in a general veterinary caseload. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 74, 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(01)00154-X.
Hagopian, L. P., Rooker, G. W., Jessel, J., & DeLeon, I. G. (2013). Initial functional analysis outcomes and modifications in pursuit of differentiation: A summary of 176 inpatient cases. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(1), 88–100. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.25.
Hall, N. J., Protopopova, A., & Wynne, C. D. L. (2015). The role of environmental and owner-provided consequences in canine stereotypy and compulsive behavior. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 10(1), 24–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2014.10.005.
Hammond, J. L., Iwata, B. A., Rooker, G. W., Fritz, J. N., & Bloom, S. E. (2013). Effects of fixed versus random condition sequencing during multielement functional analyses. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(1), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.7.
Hanley, G. P., Jin, C. S., Vanselow, N. R., & Hanratty, L. A. (2014). Producing meaningful improvements in problem behavior of children with autism via synthesized analyses and treatments. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 47(1), 16–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.106.
Horwitz, D. F. (2018). Blackwell’s five-minute veterinary consult clinical companion: Canine and feline behavior (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Ing, A. D., Roane, H. S., & Veenstra, R. A. (2011). Functional analysis and treatment of coprophagia. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(1), 151–155. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2011.44-151.
Iwata, B. A., DeLeon, I. G., & Roscoe, E. M. (2013). Reliability and validity of the functional analysis screening tool. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(1), 271–284. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.31.
Iwata, B. A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K. J., Bauman, K. E., & Richman, G. S. (1994a). Toward a functional analysis of self-injury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(2), 197–209. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1994.27-197.
Iwata, B. A., & Dozier, C. L. (2008). Clinical application of functional analysis methodology. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 1(1), 3–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391714.
Iwata, B. A., Pace, G. M., Cowdery, G. E., & Miltenberger, R. G. (1994b). What makes extinction work: An analysis of procedural form and function. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(1), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1994.27-131.
Iwata, B. A., Pace, G. M., Dorsey, M. F., Zarcone, J. R., Vollmer, T. R., Smith, R. G., et al. (1994c). The functions of self-injurious behavior: An experimental-epidemiological analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(2), 215–240. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1994.27-215.
Kahng, S., Iwata, B. A., Fischer, S. M., Page, T. J., Treadwell, K. R., Williams, D. E., & Smith, R. G. (1998). Temporal distributions of problem behavior based on scatter plot analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31(4), 593–604. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1998.31-593.
Kodak, T., Grow, L., & Northup, J. (2004). Functional analysis and treatment of elopement for a child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37(2), 229–232. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2004.37-229.
Kodak, T., Northup, J., & Kelley, M. E. (2007). An evaluation of the types of attention that maintain problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40(1), 167–171. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2007.43-06.
Landsberg, G., Hunthausen, W., & Ackerman, L. (2013). Behavior counseling and behavioral diagnostics. In Behavior problems of the dog and cat (3rd ed., pp. 65–74). Elsevier.
Lerman, D. C., & Iwata, B. A. (1993). Descriptive and experimental analyses of variables maintaining self-injurious behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26(3), 293–319. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1993.26-293.
Mace, F. C., & Lalli, J. S. (1991). Linking descriptive and experimental analyses in the treatment of bizarre speech. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24(3), 553–562. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1991.24-553.
Macknin, M. L., Piedmonte, M., Jacobs, J., & Skibinski, C. (2000). Symptoms associated with infant teething: A prospective study. Pediatrics, 105(4), 747–752. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.105.4.747.
Martin, A. L., Bloomsmith, M. A., Kelley, M. E., Marr, M. J., & Maple, T. L. (2011). Functional analysis and treatment of human-directed undesirable behavior exhibited by a captive chimpanzee. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(1), 139–143. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2011.44-139.
Mehrkam, L. R., Perez, B. C., Self, V. N., Vollmer, T. R., & Dorey, N. R. (2020). Functional analysis and operant treatment of food guarding in a pet dog. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.720
Memarpour, M., Soltanimehr, E., & Eskandarian, T. (2015). Signs and symptoms associated with primary tooth eruption: A clinical trial of nonpharmacological remedies. BMC Oral Health, 15, 88. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-015-0070-2.
Morris, K. L., & Slocum, S. K. (2019). Functional analysis and treatment of self-injurious feather plucking in a black vulture (Coragyps atratus). Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 52(4), 918–927. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.639.
Neitz, J., Geist, T., & Jacobs, G. H. (1989). Color vision in the dog. Visual Neuroscience, 3(2), 119–125.
Oropeza, M. E., Fritz, J. N., Nissen, M. A., Terrell, A. S., & Phillips, L. A. (2018). Effects of therapist-worn protective equipment during functional analysis of aggression. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 51(3), 681–686. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.457.
Oxley, J. A., Christley, R., & Westgarth, C. (2019). What is a dog bite? Perceptions of UK dog bite victims. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 29, 40–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2018.09.002.
Patronek, G. J., & Dodman, N. (1999). Attitudes, procedures, and delivery of behavior services by veterinarians in small animal practice. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 215(11), 1606–1611.
Patronek, G. J., Glickman, L. T., Beck, A. M., McCabe, G. P., & Ecker, C. (1996a). Risk factors for relinquishment of dogs to an animal shelter. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 209(3), 572–581.
Patronek, G. J., Glickman, L. T., Beck, A. M., McCabe, G. P., & Ecker, C. (1996b). Risk factors for relinquishment of cats to an animal shelter. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 209(3), 582–588.
Pfaller-Sadovsky, N., Arnott, G., & Hurtado-Parrado, C. (2019). Using principles from applied behaviour analysis to address an undesired behaviour: Functional analysis and treatment of jumping up in companion dogs. Animals, 9(12), 1091. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9121091.
Piazza, C. C., Fisher, W. W., Brown, K. A., Shore, B. A., Patel, M. R., Katz, R. M., Sevin, B. M., Gulotta, C. S., & Blakely-Smith, A. (2003). Functional analysis of inappropriate mealtime behaviors. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 187–204. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2003.36-187.
Piazza, C. C., Hanley, G. P., & Fisher, W. W. (1996). Functional analysis and treatment of cigarette pica. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29(4), 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1996.29-437.
Pretterer, G., Bubna-Littitz, H., Windischbauer, G., Gabler, C., & Griebel, U. (2004). Brightness discrimination in the dog. Journal of Vision, 4(3), 241–249. https://doi.org/10.1167/4.3.10.
Protopopova, A., & Wynne, C. D. L. (2014). Adopter-dog interactions at the shelter: Behavioral and contextual predictors of adoption. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 157, 109–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2014.04.007.
Radosta-Huntley, L., Shofer, F., & Reisner, I. (2007). Comparison of 42 cases of canine fear-related aggression with structured clinician initiated follow-up and 25 cases with unstructured client initiated follow-up. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 105(4), 330–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2006.11.005.
Reisner, I. R., Erb, H. N., & Houpt, K. (1994). Risk factors for behavior-related euthanasia among dominant-aggressive dogs: 110 cases (1989–1992). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 205(6), 855–863.
Reisner, I. R., Shofer, F. S., & Nance, M. L. (2007). Behavioral assessment of child-directed canine aggression. Injury Prevention: Journal of the International Society for Child and Adolescent Injury Prevention, 13(5), 348–351. https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.2007.015396.
Ringdahl, J. E., Winborn, L. C., Andelman, M. S., & Kitsukawa, K. (2002). The effects of noncontingently available alternative stimuli on functional analysis outcomes. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35(4), 407–410. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2002.35-407.
Roscoe, E. M., Carreau, A., MacDonald, J., & Pence, S. T. (2008). Further evaluation of leisure items in the attention condition of functional analyses. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41(3), 351–364. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2008.41-351.
Salman, M. D., Hutchison, J., Ruch-Gallie, R., Kogan, L., New, J. C., Kass, P. H., & Scarlett, J. M. (2000). Behavioral reasons for relinquishment of dogs and cats to 12 shelters. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 3(2), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327604JAWS0302_2.
Schwartz, B., Hamilton, B., & Silberberg, A. (1975). Behavioral contrast in the pigeon: A study of the duration of key pecking maintained on multiple schedules of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 24(2), 199–206. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1975.24-199.
Seksel, K. (2008). Preventing behavior problems in puppies and kittens. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 38(5), 971–982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.04.003.
Shabelansky, A., & Dowling-Guyer, S. (2016). Characteristics of excitable dog behavior based on owners’ report from a self-selected study. Animals, 6(3), 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani6030022.
Shore, E. R. (2005). Returning a recently adopted companion animal: Adopters’ reasons for and reactions to the failed adoption experience. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 8(3), 187–198. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327604jaws0803_3.
Smith, R. G. (1995). Analysis of establishing operations for self-injury maintained by escape. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(4), 515–535. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1995.28-515.
Smith, R. G., Iwata, B. A., Vollmer, T. R., & Zarcone, J. R. (1993). Experimental analysis and treatment of multiply controlled self-injury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26(2), 183–196. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1993.26-183.
St. Peter, C. C., Vollmer, T. R., Bourret, J. C., Borrero, C. S. W., Sloman, K. N., & Rapp, J. T. (2005). On the role of attention in naturally occurring matching relations. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 38(4), 429–443. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2005.172-04.
St. Peter Pipkin, C., Vollmer, T. R., & Sloman, K. N. (2010). Effects of treatment integrity failures during differential reinforcement of alternative behavior: A translational model. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43(1), 47–70. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2010.43-47.
Sueda, K. L. C., & Malamed, R. (2014). Canine aggression toward people: A guide for practitioners. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 44(3), 599–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2014.01.008.
Thompson, R. H., Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., & Kuhn, D. E. (1998). The evaluation and treatment of aggression maintained by attention and automatic reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31(1), 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1998.31-103.
Thompson, R. H., & Iwata, B. A. (2007). A comparison of outcomes from descriptive and functional analyses of problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40(2), 333–338. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2007.56-06.
Waite, M., Harman, M., & Kodak, T. (2021). Frequency and animal demographics of mouthing behavior in companion dogs in the United States. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research.
Winslow, T., Payne, S. W., & Massoudi, K. A. (2018). Functional analysis and treatment of problem behavior in 3 animal shelter dogs. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 26, 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2018.04.004.
Author Note
We thank Samantha Bergmann, Caitlin Joy Fulton, Mary Halbur, and Joseph Munski for their assistance with data collection and analysis. We are grateful to the John and Lynn Schiek Immediate Impact Research Scholarship for supporting this work.
Funding
This work was supported by a John and Lynn Schiek Immediate Impact Research Scholarship awarded to Mindy Waite.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception, design, and conduct.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest/Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Ethics approval
This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Human Research Protection Program (July 25, 2017, 17.308). Approval was also granted by the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee for animal research (May 22, 2017, 16-17 #21).
Consent to participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual human participants included in the study.
Consent for publication
Consent for publication for de-identified data was obtained from all individual human participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Research Highlights
• Canine mouthing behavior can be multiply maintained.
• Interventions targeting the function of mouthing behavior can substantially reduce mouthing on people.
• Owners can conduct canine functional analyses and interventions with high levels of treatment integrity.
• Owners can be successfully incorporated into testing the function of mouthing behavior and delivering interventions to reduce its behavioral frequency.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Waite, M., Kodak, T. Owner-Implemented Functional Analyses and Reinforcement-Based Treatments for Mouthing in Dogs. Behav Analysis Practice 15, 269–283 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-021-00554-y
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-021-00554-y