Abstract
With the rapid rise of Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIEd), multiple stakeholders are questioning AI’s capability to make fair and trustworthy decisions that improve teaching and learning. We suspect that unfair and unreliable outcomes might stem from lack of systematic collaboration between the developers of AIEd systems and the educators tasked with their implementation. In a profession that is underresourced, teachers don’t merely need technology-centered solutions. Rather they and the students they serve need useful tools that work in culturally and socially complex instructional environments. In this article, the authors argue that FATE in AIEd-related issues must be addressed as the system evolves with users and the local context. This requires supporting the development of users’ ownership over AIEd systems that is needed to adapt them to their local contexts. It is in this process of gaining ownership that significant issues related to the FATE of AIEd systems present themselves. Inspired by continuous improvement approaches, we propose that the pursuit of FATE of AIEd lays broadly in: (a) promoting systematic inquiry and collaboration between educators, developers, and researchers; (b) exploring, through collaborative efforts, how on-the-ground realities influence the implementation of AIEd; and (c) using variation as an opportunity to learn how to make a system work reliably and across contexts. The authors conclude by discussing the implications of continuous improvement for research, development, and practice of AIEd.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahn, J., Campos, F., Hays, M., & DiGiacomo, D. (2019). Designing in Context: Reaching beyond Usability in Learning Analytics Dashboard Design. Journal of Learning Analytics, 6(2), 70–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2019.1710541.
Aleven, V. A., & Koedinger, K. R. (2002). An effective metacognitive strategy: Learning by doing and explaining with a computer-based Cognitive Tutor. Cognitive Science, 26(2), 147–179. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog2602_1.
Amiel, T., & Reeves, T. C. (2008). Design-based research and educational technology: Rethinking technology and the research agenda. Educational Technology & Society, 11(4), 29–40
Arroyo, I., Beal, C., Murray, T., Walles, R., & Woolf, B. P. (2004). Web-based intelligent multimedia tutoring for high stakes achievement tests. In lnternational Conference on lntelligent Tutoring Systems (pp. 468–477). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-30139-4_44.
Astleitner, H., & Steinberg, R. (2005). Are there gender differences in web-based learning? An integrated model and related effect sizes. AACE Journal, 13(1), 47–63.
Baron, K. (2016). Clear, measurable goals and empathy help scale improvement science at high tech high. [Carnegie Commons Blog]. Retrieved from https://www.carnegiefoundation.org/blog/clear-measurable-goals-and-empathy-help-scale-improvement-science-at-high-tech-high/. Accessed 15 Oct 2020
Baron, K. (2017a). Journey mapping a path to early literacy in Tennessee. [Carnegie Commons Blog]. Retrieved from https://www.carnegiefoundation.org/blog/journey-mapping-a-path-to-early-literacy-in-tennessee/. Accessed 15 Oct 2020
Baron, K. (2017b). The promise of social relationships in building strong networked improvement communities. [Carnegie Commons Blog]. Retrieved from https://www.carnegiefoundation.org/blog/the-promise-of-social-relationships-in-building-strong-networked-improvement-communities/. Accessed 15 Oct 2020
Bosch, N., Brooks, C., Doroudi, S., Gardner, J., Holstein, K., & Yu, R. (2020). "FATED: Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency in Educational Data (Mining)" In: Proceedings of The 13th International Conference on Educational Data Mining (EDM 2020), Anna N. Rafferty, Jacob Whitehill, Violetta Cavalli-Sforza, and Cristobal Romero (eds.), pp. 831 - 834.
Brar, R. (2010). The design and study of a learning environment to support growth and change in students' knowledge of fraction multiplication. Unpublished doctoral dissertation from the University of California.
Brown, A. L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological challenges in creating complex interventions in classroom settings. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2(2), 141–178.
Bryk, A. S. (2015). 2014 AERA distinguished lecture: Accelerating how we learn to improve. Educational Researcher, 44(9), 467–477. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X15621543.
Bryk, A. S., & Schneider, B. (2003). Trust in schools: A core resource for school reform. Educational Leadership, 60(6), 40–45.
Bryk, A. S., Gomez, L. M., Grunow, A. (2011). Getting ideas into action: Building networked improvement communities in education. In M. Hallinan (Ed.), Frontiers in sociology of education. Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1576-9_7.
Bryk, A. S., Gomez, L. M., Grunow, A., & LeMahieu, P. G. (2015). Learning to lmprove: How America’s Schools Can Get Better at Getting Better. Harvard Education Press.
Buckingham Shum, S., Ferguson, R., & Martinez-Maldonado, R. (2019). Human-centred learning analytics. Journal of Learning Analytics, 6(2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.18608/jla.2019.62.1
Cannata, M., Redding, C., Brown, S., Joshi, E., & Rutledge, S. (2017). How ideas spread: Establishing a Networked Improvement Community. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association in San Antonio.
Carbonell, J. R. (1970). AI in CAI: An artificial-intelligence approach to computer-assisted instruction. lEEE Transactions on Man-Machine Systems, 11(4), 190–202. https://doi.org/10.1109/TMMS.1970.299942.
Casas, I., Imbrogno, J., Ochoa, S., & Ogan, A. (2014). Cultural Factors In The Implementation And Use Of An Intelligent Tutoring System In Latin America. In E-Learn: World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education (pp. 323–331). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Retrieved March 25, 2021 from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/148931/.
Cornwall, A. C., Byrne, K. A., & Worthy, D. A. (2018). Gender differences in preference for reward frequency versus reward magnitude in decision-making under uncertainty. Personality and Individual Differences, 135, 40–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.06.031
Crocco, M. S., Cramer, J., & Meier, E. B. (2008). (Never) Mind the gap! Gender equity in social studies research on technology in the twenty-first century. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 2(1), 19–36. https://doi.org/10.1108/17504970810867133
D’mello, S., & Graesser, A. (2013). AutoTutor and affective AutoTutor: Learning by talking with cognitively and emotionally intelligent computers that talk back. ACM Transactions on Lnteractive Lntelligent Systems (TiiS), 2(4), 1–39. https://doi.org/10.1145/2395123.2395128.
Deming, W. E. (1982). Quality, Productivity and Competitive Position. MIT Press.
Deming, W. E. (2018). Out of the Crisis. MIT Press.
Design-Based Research Collective. (2003). Design-based research: An emerging paradigm for educational inquiry. Educational Researcher, 32(1), 5–8.
Devitt, S. K. (2018). Trustworthiness of autonomous systems. In Foundations of Trusted Autonomy (pp. 161–184). Springer.
Dillenbourg, P., Zufferey, G., Alavi, H., Jermann, P., Do-Lenh, S., Bonnard, Q., & Kaplan, F. (2011). Classroom orchestration: The third circle of usability. In CSCL2011 proceedings (Vol. 1, pp. 510–517). International Society of the Learning Sciences.
Doroudi, S., & Brunskill, E. (2019). Fairer but not fair enough on the equitability of knowledge tracing. In The 9th International Learning Analytics & Knowledge Conference (LAK19), March 4–8, 2019. ACM, (pp. 335–339). https://doi.org/10.1145/3303772.3303838.
Drachsler, H., Hoel, T., Scheffel, M., Kismihók, G., Berg, A., Ferguson, R., Berg, A., Scheffel, M., Kismihók, G., Manderveld, J., & Chen, W. (2015). Ethical and privacy issues in the application of learning analytics. In Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge. (pp. 390–391). https://doi.org/10.1145/2723576.2723642.
Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T. (2010). Teacher technology change: How knowledge, confidence, beliefs, and culture intersect. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42(3), 255–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2010.10782551.
Fahrman, B., Norstrom, P., Gumaelius, L., & Skogh, I. B. (2020). Experienced technology teachers’ teaching practices. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 30(1), 163–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-019-09494-9.
Ferguson, A. G. (2017). Policing Predictive Policing. Washington University Law Review, 94(5), 1109–1189.
Fisher, T. (2006). Educational transformation: Is it like “beauty” in the eye of the beholder, or will we know it when we see it? Education and Lnformation Technologies, 11, 293–303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-006-9009-1.
Floridi, L., Cowls, J., Beltrametti, M., Chatila, R., Chazerand, P., Dignum, V., Luetge, C., Madelin, R., Pagallo, U., Rossi, F., Schafer, B., Valcke, P., & Vayena, E. (2018). AI4People–An Ethical Framework for a Good AI Society: Opportunities, Risks, Principles, and Recommendations. Minds and Machines, 28(4), 689–707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11023-018-9482-5.
Gardner, J., Brooks, C., & Baker, R. (2019). Evaluating the Fairness of Predictive Student Models Through Slicing Analysis. In The 9th International Learning Analytics & Knowledge Conference (LAK19), March 4–8, 2019. ACM, (pp. 225–234). https://doi.org/10.1145/3303772.3303791.
Gomez, L. M., Gomez, K., & Gifford B. R. (2010). Educational innovation with technology: A new look at scale and opportunity to learn. Educational Reform: Transforming America’s Education through Innovation and Technology. Aspen Institute Congressional Conference Program Papers.
Gomez, K., Kyza, E. A., & Mancevice, N. (2018). Participatory design and the learning sciences. In International Handbook of the Learning Sciences (pp. 401–409). Routledge.
Gomez, L. M., Bryk, A. S., & Bohannon, A. (2020). La fiabilité: Une voie vers l’équité? Revue Internationale D’éducation De Sèvres, 83, 195–204.
Gomez, K., Gomez, L., & Worsley, M. ( 2021). Interrogating the role of CSCL in diversity, equity, and inclusion. In (A. Wise, U. Cress, C. Rosé, and J. Oshima, Eds.) The International Handbook of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning.
Holmes, W., Anastopoulou, S., Schaumburg, H., & Mavrikis, M. (2018a). Technology-enhanced personalised Learning: Untangling the Evidence. Robert Bosch Stiftung GmbH. http://libeprints.open.ac.uk/56692/1/TEPL_en.pdf. Accessed 08 Mar 2020.
Holmes, W., Bektik, D., Whitelock, D., & Woolf, B. P. (2018b). Ethics in AIED: Who Cares? (C. Penstein Rosé, R. Martínez-Maldonado, H. U. Hoppe, R. Luckin, M. Mavrikis, K. Porayska-Pomsta, … B. du Boulay, Eds.). In International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIED 2018) (pp. 551–553). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93846-2.
Holstein, K. (2019). Designing real-time teacher augmentation to combine strengths of human and AI instruction. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University.
Holstein, K., & Doroudi, S. (2019). Fairness and equity in learning analytics systems (FairLAK). In Companion Proceedings of the Ninth International Learning Analytics & Knowledge Conference (LAK 2019). March 4–8, 2019, Tempe, Arizona, USA (pp. 500–503). ACM.
Holstein, K., McLaren, B. M., & Aleven, V. (2017). Intelligent tutors as teachers aides: exploring teacher needs for real-time analytics in blended classrooms. In Proceedings of the Seventh lnternational Learning Analytics & Knowledge Conference (LAK '17), 13–17 March 2017, (pp. 257–266). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3027385.3027451.
Holstein, K., McLaren, B. M., & Aleven, V. (2018). Student learning benefits of a mixed-reality teacher awareness tool in AI-enhanced classrooms. In C. Penstein Rose, R. Martinez-Maldonado, U. Hoppe, R. Luckin, M. Mavrikis, K. Porayska-Pomsta, B. McLaren, & B. du Boulay (Eds.), Proceedings of the 19th lnternational Conference on Artificial lntelligence in Education (AIED 2018), 27–30 June 2018. (pp. 154–168). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93843-1_12.
Holstein, K., McLaren, B. M., & Aleven, V. (2019a). Co-designing a real-time classroom orchestration tool to support teacher-AI complementarity. Journal of Learning Analytics, 6(2), 27–52. https://doi.org/10.18608/jla.2019.62.3.
Holstein, K., McLaren, B. M., & Aleven, V. (2019b). Designing for complementarity: Teacher and student needs for orchestration support in AI-enhanced classrooms. In S. Isotani, E. Millán, A. Ogan, P. Hastings, B. McLaren, R. Luckin (Eds.), 20th lnternational Conference on Artificial lntelligence in Education (pp. 157–171). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23204-7_14.
Holstein, K., Wortman Vaughan, J., Daume, H. III., Dudik, M., & Wallach, H. (2019c). Improving fairness in machine learning systems: what do industry practitioners need? In Proceedings of the 2019 CHl Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ’19), ACM. 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1145/3290605.3300830.
Hossain, Z., Bumbacher, E., Brauneis, A., Diaz, M., Saltarelli, A., Blikstein, P., & Riedel-Kruse, I. H. (2018). Design guidelines and empirical case study for scaling authentic inquiry-based science learning via open online courses and interactive biology cloud labs. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 28(4), 478–507.
Jones, K. M., & McCoy, C. (2019) Ethics in praxis: Socio-technical integration research in learning analytics. In Companion Proceedings of the 9th lnternational Learning Analytics & Knowledge Conference, https://doi.org/10.1145/3303772.
Keyes, O., Hutson, J., & Durbin, M. (2019). A mulching proposal: Analysing and improving an algorithmic system for turning the elderly into high-nutrient slurry. In Extended Abstracts of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1–11).
Koedinger, K. R., & Corbett, A. T. (2006). Cognitive tutors: Technology bringing learning science to the classroom. In K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511816833.006.
Koedinger, K., Aleven, V., Roll, I., & Baker, R. (2009). In vivo experiments on whether supporting metacognition in intelligent tutoring systems yields robust learning. In A. C. Graesser, D. J. Hacker, & J. Dunlosky (Eds.), Handbook of Metacognition in Education (1st ed., pp. 395–424). Routledge.
Kung, C., & Yu, R. (2020). Interpretable Models Do Not Compromise Accuracy or Fairness in Predicting College Success. In Proceedings of the Seventh ACM Conference on Learning@ Scale (L@S '20), August 12–14, 2020. (pp. 413–416). https://doi.org/10.1145/3386527.3406755.
Langley, G. J., Moen, R., Nolan, K. M., Nolan, T. W., Norman, C. L., & Provost, L. P. (2009). The improvement guide: A practical approach to enhancing organizational performance. Wiley.
LeMahieu, P. G., Grunow, A., Baker, L., Nordstrum, L. E., & Gomez, L. M. (2017). Networked improvement communities: The discipline of improvement science meets the power of networks. Quality Assurance in Education, 25(1), 5–25. https://doi.org/10.1108/QAE-12-2016-0084.
Luckin, R., Holmes, W., Griffiths, M., & Forcier, L. B. (2016). Intelligence unleashed: An argument for AI in education.
Margolis, J., Estrella, R., Goode, J., Holme, J. J., & Nao, K. (2017). Stuck in the shallow end: Education, race, and computing. MIT press.
Martinez-Maldonado, R., Elliott, D., Axisa, C., Power, T., Echeverria, V., & Buckingham Shum, S. (2020). Designing translucent learning analytics with teachers: an elicitation process. Interactive Learning Environments, 1–15.
Murphy, R., Gallagher, L., Krumm, A., Mislevy, J., & Hafter, A. (2014). Research on the Use of Khan Academy in Schools. SRI Education.
Neri, R. C., Lozano, M., & Gomez, L. M. (2019). (Re)framing Resistance to Culturally Relevant Education as a Multilevel Learning Problem. Review of Research in Education, 43(1), 197–226.
Niemantsverdriet, K., Broekhuijsen, M., van Essen, H., & Eggen, B. (2016). Designing for multi-user interaction in the home environment: Implementing social translucence. In Proceedings of Designing Interactive Systems, DIS’16 (pp. 1303–1314). ACM.
Olsen, J. K. (2017). Orchestrating Combined Collaborative and Individual Learning in the Classroom. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), Carnegie Mellon University.
Paquin, R. L., & Howard-Grenville, J. (2013). Blind Dates and Arranged Marriages: Longitudinal Processes of Network Orchestration. Organization Studies, 34(11), 1623–1653. https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840612470230.
Pardo, A., & Siemens, G. (2014). Ethical and privacy principles for learning analytics. British Journal of Educational Technology, 45(3), 438–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12152.
Penuel, W. R., Fishman, B. J., Haugan Cheng, B., & Sabelli, N. (2011). Organizing research and development at the intersection of learning, implementation, and design. Educational Researcher, 40(7), 331–337.
Perkowski, J. (2013). The role of gender in distance learning: A meta-analytic review of gender differences in academic performance and self-efficacy in distance learning. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 41(3), 267–278.
Porayska-Pomsta, K., Frauenberger, C., Pain, H., Rajendran, G., Smith, T., Menzies, R., Alcorn, A., Foster, M., Bernardini, S., Arvamides, K., Keay-Bright, W., Chen, J., Waller, A., Guldberg, K., Good, J., & Lemon, O. (2012). Developing technology for autism: An interdisciplinary approach. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 16, 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00779-011-0384-2.
Portes, A., & Zhou, M. (1993). The new second generation: Segmented assimilation and its variants. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 530(1), 74–96.
Pressman, R. S. (2005). Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach. Palgrave Macmillan.
Prieto, L. P., Dlab, M. H., Gutiérrez, I., Abdulwahed, M., & Balid, W. (2011a). Orchestrating technology enhanced learning: A literature review and a conceptual framework. International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 3(6), 583. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJTEL.2011.045449.
Prieto, L. P., Dimitriadis, Y., Villagrá-Sobrino, S., Jorrín-Abellán, I. M., & Martínez-Monés, A. (2011b). Orchestrating CSCL in primary classrooms: One vision of orchestration and the role of routines, Proceedings of the 9th international conference on Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL 2011), Paper presented at the Workshop on How to Integrate CSCL in Classroom Life: Orchestration. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266354720_Orchestrating_CSCL_in_primary_classrooms_One_vision_of_orchestration_and_the_role_of_routines_Introduction_a_vision_of_orchestrated_CSCL. Accessed 15 Oct 2020
Qin, F., Li, K., & Yan, J. (2020). Understanding user trust in artificial intelligence-based educational systems: Evidence from China. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(5), 1693–1710.
Reimann, P. (2016). Connecting learning analytics with learning research: the role of design-based research. Learning: Research and Practice 2(2), 130–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/23735082.2016.1210198
Rowe, J. P., Shores, L. R., Mott, B. W., & Lester, J. C. (2011). Integrating learning, problem solving, and engagement in narrative-centered learning environments. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 21(1–2), 115–133.
Schaefer, K. E., Chen, J. Y., Szalma, J. L., & Hancock, P. A. (2016). A meta-analysis of factors influencing the development of trust in automation: Implications for understanding autonomy in future systems. Human Factors, 58(3), 377–400.
Senge, P. M. (2006). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. Doubleday Currency.
Serholt, S., Barendregt, W., Vasalou, A., Alves-Oliveira, P., Jones, A., Petisca, S., & Paiva, A. (2016). The case of classroom robots: Teachers’ deliberations on the ethical tensions. AI & Society, 32(4), 613–631. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-016-0667-2.
Sieker, B. (2004). Visualisation concepts and improved software tools for causal system analysis. Doctoral dissertation, Master’s thesis, Universität Bielefeld. http://www.rvs.uni-bielefeld.deRVS-Dip-04–01. Accessed 27 Apr 2020
Six Core Principles. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.carnegiefoundation.org/our-ideas/six-core-principles-improvement/. Accessed 27 Apr 2020.
Steenbergen-Hu, S., & Cooper, H. (2013). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of intelligent tutoring systems on K–12 students’ mathematical learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(4), 970.
Stigler, J. W., Son, J. Y., Givvin, K. B., Blake, A., Fries, L., Shaw, S. T., & Tucker, M. C. (2020). The Better Book approach for education research and development. Teachers College Record, 122(9), 1–23.
Tsai, Y.-S., & Gašević, D. (2017). Learning analytics in higher education — challenges and policies: A review of eight learning analytics policies. In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK ’17), 13–17 March 2017, (pp. 233–242). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3027385.3027400.
Uttamchandani, S., Bhimdiwala, A., & Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2020). Finding a place for equity in CSCL: Ambitious learning practices as a lever for sustained educational change. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 15(3), 373–382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11412-020-09325-3
Veale, M., Van Kleek, M., & Binns, R. (2018). Fairness and accountability design needs for algorithmic support in high-stakes public sector decision-making. In Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference On Human Factors In Computing Systems, April 21–26, 2018. (pp. 1–14). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3173574.3174014.
Walker, E., & Ogan, A. (2016). We’re in this Together: Intentional Design of Social Relationships with AIED Systems. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26(2), 713–729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-016-0100-5.
Wang, F., & Hannafin, M. J. (2005). Design-based research and technology-enhanced learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(4), 5–23
Warschauer, M., & Matuchniak, T. (2010). New technology and digital worlds: Analyzing evidence of equity in access use and outcomes. Review of Research in Education, 34(1), 179–225. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X09349791
Weitekamp, D., Harpstead, E., & Koedinger, K. R. (2020) An interaction design for machine teaching to develop AI tutors. In Proceedings of the 2020 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1–11). New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376226
Yeager, D., Bryk, A., Muhich, J., Hausman, H., & Morales, L. (2013). Summary for Policymakers. Practical Measurement. Cambridge University Press.
Yu, R., Li, Q., Fischer, C., Doroudi, S., & Xu, D. (2020). Towards accurate and fair prediction of college success: evaluating different sources of student data. In A.N. Rafferty, J. Whitehill, C. Romero, V. Cavalli-Sforza (Eds.), Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Educational Data Mining (EDM 2020) (pp. 292–301)
Zhao, J., Wang, T., Yatskar, M., Ordonez, V., & Chang, K. W. (2017). Men also like shopping: Reducing gender bias amplification using corpus-level constraints. In Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP ‘17). arXiv preprint arXiv:1707.09457
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bhimdiwala, A., Neri, R.C. & Gomez, L.M. Advancing the Design and Implementation of Artificial Intelligence in Education through Continuous Improvement. Int J Artif Intell Educ 32, 756–782 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-021-00278-8
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-021-00278-8