Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Motives to Engage in Online Sexual Activities and Their Links to Excessive and Problematic Use: a Systematic Review

  • Technology Addiction (J Billieux, Section Editor)
  • Published:
Current Addiction Reports Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose of Review

This systematic review examines the motives behind online sexual activities (OSAs) and their relationship with excessive and problematic engagement in OSAs.

Recent Findings

Few studies have explored the motives fueling healthy and problematic engagement in OSAs, despite the evident relevance of motives for understanding these activities. Disparities in methodology and lack of validated tools have hindered the comparability and generalizability of results.

Summary

We retained and analyzed 30 studies, from which seven categories of motives emerged: (1) those related to the structural characteristics of the Internet, (2) curiosity and sexual education, (3) social motives (social enhancement and/or peer pressure), (4) sexual arousal and pleasure seeking, (5) online/offline sexuality enhancement, (6) anonymous fantasizing, and (7) mood management. These motives varied by age and sex and some allowed the distinction between healthy involvement in OSAs and excessive and dysfunctional involvement in them.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

  1. International Telecommunication Union. Measuring the Information Society Report 2017. Geneva: International Telecommunication Union, ITU; 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Ogas O, Gaddam S. A billion wicked thoughts. New York: Penguin; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Misra A. Internet data consumption to reach 607 terabytes per second by 2020: 35% will be for pornography! Dazeinfo 2014. https://dazeinfo.com/2014/04/17/internet-data-consumption-reach-607-terabytes-per-second-2020-35-will-pornography/. Accessed 6 Feb 2018.

  4. Pornhub. Pornhub’s 2018 year in review. 2018. https://www.pornhub.com/insights. Accessed 4 Feb 2018.

  5. • Döring N, Daneback K, Shaughnessy K, Grov C, Byers ES. Online sexual activity experiences among college students: a four-country comparison. Arch Sex Behav. 2017;46(6):1641–52 This study provides updated statistics about lifetime prevalence of six types of online sexual activities in four countries’ college students.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Cooper A, Morahan-Martin J, Mathy RM, Maheu M. Toward an increased understanding of user demographics in online sexual activities. J Sex Marital Ther. 2002;28(2):105–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Shaughnessy K, Byers ES, Walsh L. Online sexual activity experience of heterosexual students: gender similarities and differences. Arch Sex Behav. 2011;40(2):419–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. O’Sullivan LF. Linking online sexual activities to health outcomes among teens. New Dir Child Adolesc Dev. 2014;2014(144):37–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. • Döring NM. The Internet’s impact on sexuality: a critical review of 15 years of research. Comput Hum Behav. 2009;25(5):1089–101 This review explores adolescents’ interpersonal and intrapersonal health outcomes associated to six areas of online sexual activity (pornography, sex shops, sex work, sex education, sex contacts, and sexual subcultures).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Daneback K, Sevcikova A, Månsson SA, Ross MW. Outcomes of using the internet for sexual purposes: fulfillment of sexual desires. Sex Health. 2013;10:26–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Suzuki LK, Calzo JP. The search for peer advice in cyberspace: an examination of online teen bulletin boards about health and sexuality. Appl Dev Psychol. 2004;25:685–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Smith M. Youth viewing sexually explicit material online: addressing the elephant on the screen. Sex Res Soc Policy. 2013;10(1):62–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Courtice EL, Shaughnessy K. The partner context of sexual minority women’s and men’s cybersex experiences: implications for the traditional sexual script. Sex Roles. 2018;78(3–4):272–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Daneback K, Træen B, Månsson S-A. Use of pornography in a random sample of Norwegian heterosexual couples. Arch Sex Behav. 2009;38(5):746–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Hald GM, Malamuth NM. Self-perceived effects of pornography consumption. Arch Sex Behav. 2008;37(4):614–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Cooper K, Quayle E, Jonsson L, Svedin CG. Adolescents and self-taken sexual images: a review of the literature. Comput Hum Behav. 2016;55:706–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Paul B, Linz DG. The effects of exposure to virtual child pornography on viewer cognitions and attitudes toward deviant sexual behavior. Commun Res. 2008;35(1):3–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Wéry A, Billieux J. Problematic cybersex: conceptualization, assessment, and treatment. Addict Behav. 2017;64:238–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. • Duffy A, Dawson DL, das Nair R. Pornography addiction in adults: a systematic review of definitions and reported impact. J Sex Med. 2016;13(5):760–77 This study reviews recent literature focused on the definition and impact of excessive and problematic pornography viewing.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. World Health Organization. ICD-11 for mortality and morbidity statistics. World Health Organization. 2018. https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en. Accessed 22 Jun 2018.

  21. Potenza MN, Gola M, Voon V, Kor A, Kraus SW. Is excessive sexual behaviour an addictive disorder? Lancet Psychiatry. 2017;4(9):663–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Kafka MP. Hypersexual disorder: a proposed diagnosis for DSM-V. Arch Sex Behav. 2010;39(2):377–400.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Kraus SW, Krueger RB, Briken P, First MB, Stein DJ, Kaplan MS, et al. Compulsive sexual behaviour disorder in the ICD-11. World Psychiatry. 2018;17(1):109–10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Moser C. Hypersexual disorder: searching for clarity. Sex Addict Compulsivity. 2013;20(1–2):48–58.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Billieux J, van Rooij AJ, Heeren A, Schimmenti A, Maurage P, Edman J, et al. Behavioural Addiction Open Definition 2.0—using the Open Science Framework for collaborative and transparent theoretical development. Addiction. 2017;112(10):1723–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Kardefelt-Winther D, Heeren A, Schimmenti A, van Rooij A, Maurage P, Carras M, et al. How can we conceptualize behavioural addiction without pathologizing common behaviours? Addiction. 2017;112(10):1709–15.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Negash S, Van N, Sheppard N, Lambert NM, Fincham FD. Trading later rewards for current pleasure: pornography consumption and delay discounting. J Sex Res. 2016;53(6):689–700.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Allen A, Kannis-Dymand L, Katsikitis M. Problematic internet pornography use: the role of craving, desire thinking, and metacognition. Addict Behav. 2017;70:65–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Rosenberg KP, Carnes PJ, O’Connor S. Evaluation and treatment of sex addiction. J Sex Marital Ther. 2014;40(2):77–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. King DL, Herd MCE, Delfabbro PH. Tolerance in Internet gaming disorder: a need for increasing gaming time or something else? J Behav Addict. 2017;6(4):525–33.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Starcevic V. Tolerance and withdrawal symptoms may not be helpful to enhance understanding of behavioural addictions. Addiction. 2016;111(7):1307–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Griffiths MD. Internet sex addiction: a review of empirical research. Addict Res Theory. 2012;20(2):111–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Dhuffar MK, Griffiths MD. A systematic review of online sex addiction and clinical treatments using CONSORT evaluation. Curr Addict Reports. 2015;2(2):163–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Cooper A, Månsson SA, Daneback K, Tikkanen R, Ross MW. Predicting the future of Internet sex: online sexual activities in Sweden. Sex Relatsh Ther. 2003;18(3):277–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Sher KJ, Grekin ER, Williams NA. The development of alcohol use disorders. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2005;1:493–523.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Khang H, Kim JK, Kim Y. Self-traits and motivations as antecedents of digital media flow and addiction: the Internet, mobile phones, and video games. Comput Hum Behav. 2013;29(6):2416–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Stephenson KR, Ahrold TK, Meston CM. The association between sexual motives and sexual satisfaction: gender differences and categorical comparisons. Arch Sex Behav. 2011;40(3):607–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Shaughnessy K, Byers ES, Clowater SL, Kalinowski A. Self-appraisals of arousal-oriented online sexual activities in university and community samples. Arch Sex Behav. 2014;43(6):1187–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Short MB, Black L, Smith AH, Wetterneck CT, Wells DE. A review of Internet pornography use research: methodology and content from the past 10 years. Cyberpsychology, Behav Soc Netw. 2012;15(1):13–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. •• Reid RC, Li DS, Gilliland R, Stein JA, Fong T. Reliability, validity, and psychometric development of the Pornography Consumption Inventory in a sample of hypersexual men. J Sex Marital Ther. 2011;37(5):359–85 This article reports the psychometric properties of the Pornography Consumption Inventory (PCI), the unique scale specifically developed to assess motivations for pornography use.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Altman D, Antes G, et al. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6(7):e1000097.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Popay J, Roberts H, Sowden A, Petticrew M, Arai L, Rodgers M, et al. Guidance on the conduct of narrative synthesis in systematic reviews: a product from the ESRC Methods Programme. 2006. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.178.3100&rep=rep1&type=pdf. Accessed 6 Apr 2018.

  43. Peter J, Valkenburg PM. Adolescents and pornography: a review of 20 years of research. J Sex Res. 2016;53(4–5):509–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Goodson P, McCormick D, Evans A. Searching for sexually explicit materials on the Internet: an exploratory study of college students’ behavior and attitudes. Arch Sex Behav. 2001;30(2):101–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Wallmyr G, Welin C. Young people, pornography, and sexuality: sources and attitudes. J Sch Nurs. 2006;22(5):290–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Cooper A, Griffin-Shelley E, Delmonico DL, Mathy RM. Online sexual problems: assessment and predictive variables. Sex Addict Compulsivity. 2001;8(3–4):267–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. McKenna KYA, Green AS, Smith PK. Demarginalizing the sexual self. J Sex Res. 2001;38(4):302–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Do you use porn? A survey from the Kinsey Institute. 2002. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/porn/etc/surveyres.html. Accessed 20 Feb 2018.

  49. Ross MW, Rosser BRS, McCurdy S, Feldman J. The advantages and limitations of seeking sex online: a comparison of reasons given for online and offline sexual liaisons by men who have sex with men. J Sex Res. 2007;44(1):59–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. •• Paul B, Shim JW. Gender, sexual affect, and motivations for internet pornography use. Int J Sex Health. 2008;20(3):187–99 This study in one of the first and most comprehensive works on the motives underlying Internet use for sexual purposes.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Sabina C, Wolak J, Finkelhor D. The nature and dynamics of Internet pornography exposure for youth. CyberPsychology Behav. 2008;11(6):691–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Braun-Courville DK, Rojas M. Exposure to sexually explicit web sites and adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviors. J Adolesc Health. 2009;45(2):156–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Lam CB, Chan DKS. The use of cyberpornography by young men in Hong Kong: some psychosocial correlates. Arch Sex Behav. 2007;36(4):588–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Seal DW, Benotsch EG, Green M, Snipes DJ, Bull SS, Cejka A, et al. The use of Internet chat rooms to meet sexual partners: a comparison of non-heterosexually identified men with heterosexually identified men and women. Int J Sex Health. 2015;27(1):1–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Ross MW, Mansson SA, Daneback K. Prevalence, severity and correlates of problematic sexual Internet use in Swedish men and women. Arch Sex Behav. 2012;51(2):459–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Kerstens J, Stol W. Receiving online sexual requests and producing online sexual images: the multifaceted and dialogic nature of adolescents’ online sexual interactions. Cyberpsychology. 2014;8(1).

  57. Daneback K, Sevcikova A, Mänsson S-A, Ross MW. Outcomes of using the internet for sexual purposes: fulfilment of sexual desires. Sex Health. 2013;10(1):26–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Mitchell KJ, Ybarra ML, Korchmaros JD, Kosciw JG. Accessing sexual health information online: use, motivations and consequences for youth with different sexual orientations. Health Educ Res. 2014;29(1):147–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Löfgren-Mårtenson L, Månsson S-A. Lust, love, and life: a qualitative study of Swedish adolescents’ perceptions and experiences with pornography. J Sex Res. 2010;47(6):568–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Baltazar A, Helm HE, McBride D, Hopkins G, Stevens JV. Internet pornograpy use in the context of external and internal religiosity. J Psychol Theol. 2010;38(1):32–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. De Souza-Aranha RA, Baltieri DA. A preliminary model of motivation for pornography consumption among men participating in zoophilic virtual environments. J Sex Marital Ther. 2016;42(2):143–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Ucar T, Golbasi Z, Senturk-Erenel A. Sexuality and the Internet: a study of the perspectives of Turkish university students. Cyberpsychology, Behav Soc Netw. 2016;19(12):740–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Chen A-S, Leung M, Chen C-H, Yang SC. Exposure to Internet pornography among Taiwanese adolescents. Soc Behav Personal an Int J. 2013;41(1):157–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Brown CC, Durtschi JA, Carroll JS, Willoughby BJ. Understanding and predicting classes of college students who use pornography. Comput Hum Behav. 2017;66:114–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Baltieri DA, Junqueira-Aguiar AS, De Oliveira VH, De Souza-Gatti AL, De Souza-Aranha RA. Validation of the Pornography Consumption Inventory in a sample of male Brazilian university students. J Sex Marital Ther. 2015;41(6):649–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Rothman EF, Kaczmarsky C, Burke N, Jansen E, Baughman A. “Without porn … I wouldn’t know half the things I know now”: a qualitative study of pornography use among a sample of urban, low-income, Black and Hispanic youth. J Sex Res. 2015;52(7):736–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Baltieri DA, De Souza-Gatti AL, De Oliveira VH, Junqueira-Aguiar AS, De Souza-Aranha RA. A validation study of the Brazilian version of the pornography consumption inventory (PCI) in a sample of female university students. J Forensic Legal Med. 2016;38:81–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Wéry A, Billieux J. Online sexual activities: an exploratory study of problematic and non-problematic usage patterns in a sample of men. Comput Hum Behav. 2016;56:257–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.046.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. •• Doornwaard SM, den Boer F, Vanwesenbeeck I, van Nijnatten CHCJ, ter Bogt TFM, van den Eijnden RJJM. Dutch adolescents’ motives, perceptions, and reflections toward sex-related Internet use: results of a web-based focus-group study. J Sex Res. 2017;54(8):1038–50 This study provides insight into adolescents’ motives, perceptions, and reflections toward Internet use for sexual purposes.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Anisimowicz Y, O’Sullivan LF. Men’s and women’s use and creation of online sexually explicit materials including fandom-related works. Arch Sex Behav. 2017;46(3):823–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Carsten JM, Spector PE. Unemployment, job satisfaction, and employee turnover: a meta-analytic test of the Muchinsky model. J Appl Psychol. 1987;72(3):374–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Hopewell S, Clarke MJ, Stewart L, Tierney J. Time to publication for results of clinical trials. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;2:MR000011.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Kvalem IL, Træen B, Lewin B, Štulhofer A. Self-perceived effects of Internet pornography use, genital appearance satisfaction, and sexual self-esteem among young Scandinavian adults. Cyberpsychology J Psychosoc Res Cybersp 2014;8(4). https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2014-4-4

  74. Billieux J, Schimmenti A, Khazaal Y, Maurage P, Heeren A. Are we overpathologizing everyday life? A tenable blueprint for behavioral addiction research. J Behav Addict. 2015;4(3):119–23.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Cooper A, Griffin-Shelley E. The internet: the next sexual revolution. In: Cooper A, editor. Sex & the internet: a guidebook for clinicians. New York: Brunner-Routledge; 2002. p. 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Young KS, Griffin-shelley E, Cooper A, O’mara J, Buchanan J. Online infidelity: a new dimension in couple relationships with implications for evaluation and treatment. Sex Addict Compulsivity. 2000;7(1–2):59–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Bryant J, Brown D. Uses of pornography. In: Zillmann D, editor. Pornography: research advances and policy considerations. Hillsdale: Erlbaum; 1989. p. 25–55.

    Google Scholar 

  78. • Grubbs J, Braden AL, Kraus S, Wilt J, Wright PJ. Pornography and pleasure-seeking: toward a hedonic reinforcement model. 2017. https://osf.io/ykq8s/. Accessed 5 Apr 2018. Proposal of a new theoretical model (“Hedonic Reinforcement Model of pornography consumption”) to explain pornography use and abuse based on two motives: seeking for sexual pleasure and emotional avoidance.

  79. Suls J, Rothman A. Evolution of the biopsychosocial model: prospects and challenges for health psychology. Health Psychol. 2004;23(2):119–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Ross MW. Typing, doing, and being: sexuality and the Internet. J Sex Res. 2005;42(4):342–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Daneback K, Cooper A, Månsson S-A. An Internet study of cybersex participants. Arch Sex Behav. 2005;34(3):321–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Wu S, Ward J. The mediation of gay men’s lives: a review on gay dating app studies. Sociol Compass. 2018;12(2):e12560.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Timmermans E, De Caluwé E. Development and validation of the Tinder Motives Scale (TMS). Comput Hum Behav. 2017;70:341–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Craft AJ. Love 2.0: a quantitative exploration of sex and relationships in the virtual world second life. Arch Sex Behav. 2012;41(4):939–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Hald GM, Štulhofer A. What types of pornography do people use and do they cluster? Assessing types and categories of pornography consumption in a large-scale online sample. J Sex Res. 2016;53(7):849–59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Tripodi F, Eleuteri S, Giuliani M, Rossi R, Livi S, Petruccelli I, et al. Unusual online sexual interests in heterosexual Swedish and Italian university students. Theol Sex. 2015;24(4):e84–93.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Deleuze J, Long J, Liu T, Maurage P, Billieux J. Passion or addiction? Correlates of healthy versus problematic use of videogames in a sample of French-speaking regular players. Addict Behav. 2018;82:114–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Grubbs JB, Stauner N, Exline JJ, Pargament KI, Lindberg MJ. Perceived addiction to Internet pornography and psychological distress: examining relationships concurrently and over time. Psychol Addict Behav. 2015;29(4):1056–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Wetterneck CT, Burgess AJ, Short MB, Smith AH, Cervantes ME. The role of sexual compulsivity, impulsivity, and experiential avoidance in internet pornography use. Psychol Rec. 2012;62(1):3–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Gagnon JH, Simon W. Sexual conduct: the social sources of human sexuality. 2nd ed. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This research was supported by grant APOSTD/2017/005 of the County Council Department of Education, Culture, and Sports of the Valencian Community (Spain) and grant P1.1B2015-82 of the University Jaume I of Castellón.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departmento de Psicología Básica, Clínica y Psicobiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Jaume I, Postal address: s/n Vicent Sos Baynat, 12071, Castellón de la Plana, Spain

    Jesús Castro-Calvo, C. Giménez-García & R. Ballester-Arnal

  2. Addictive and Compulsive Behaviours Lab, Institute for Health and Behaviour, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg

    Jesús Castro-Calvo

  3. Dpto. Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación, Universitat de València, Estudi General, Spain

    M. D. Gil-Llario

Authors
  1. Jesús Castro-Calvo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. C. Giménez-García
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. M. D. Gil-Llario
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. R. Ballester-Arnal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jesús Castro-Calvo.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

This article is part of the Topical Collection on Technology Addiction

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Castro-Calvo, J., Giménez-García, C., Gil-Llario, M.D. et al. Motives to Engage in Online Sexual Activities and Their Links to Excessive and Problematic Use: a Systematic Review. Curr Addict Rep 5, 491–510 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-018-0230-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-018-0230-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation