Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The challenge of regulating doping and non-doping ‘performance-enhancing strategies’ in elite sports

  • Article
  • Published:
The International Sports Law Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

From the use of polyurethane swimsuits to carbon fibre-plated shoes for road racing, the term ‘techno-doping’ has been commonly used in categorising the use of technology as ‘strategies’ for performance enhancement in sports. There are various types of ‘strategies’ which are regularly (and increasingly) used by athletes to enhance their performance, especially in elite sports, such as the use of actual substances, methods of administering substances, and other modes of ‘strategies’ which have the effect of enhancing the performance of the athletes. However, it is curious that at present, only few ‘Performance-Enhancing Strategies’ (‘PESs’) are regulated, such as the use of Performance-Enhancing Drugs and methods (‘PEDs’) under the World Anti-Doping Agency (‘WADA’) Code. There are other PESs which are wholly unregulated, such as the use of nutrition and haematology, environmental factors, physiology testing opportunities, and sports equipment and technology [hereinafter known as Non-Doping Performance-Enhancing Strategies (‘NDPESs’)]. This paper discusses the unequal treatment between the regulation of PEDs and NDPESs in elite sports, and will conclude that steps ought to be taken in order to harmonise the treatment and regulation of all PESs in elite sports.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Swaddling (1999); International Olympic Committee (2018) Ancient Greek Olympics - the first Olympic Games in Greece. In: International Olympic Committee. https://www.olympic.org/ancient-olympic-games. Accessed 30 July 2020.

  2. World Anti-Doping Agency (2015) World Anti-Doping Code, art. 4.3.

  3. Sports is often seen as a political tool employed by states. See Boykoff (2016).

  4. Holt et al. (2009).

  5. Ibid.

  6. (2017) Lausanne Declaration on Doping in Sport. In: World Anti-Doping Agency. https://www.wada-ama.org/en/resources/general-anti-doping-information/lausanne-declaration-on-doping-in-sport. Accessed 7 July 2019.

  7. World Anti-Doping Agency (2015) World Anti-Doping Code. Note the 2021 version of the Code comes into effect on 1 January 2021. See World Anti-Doping Agency (2021) World Anti-Doping Code 2021.

  8. World Anti-Doping Agency (2020) World Anti-Doping Code International Standard Prohibited List.

  9. Sailors (2009), Giblin et al. (2016) and Moria et al. (2010).

  10. Birrer and Morgan (2010).

  11. Bergström and Hultman (1972), Brotherhood (1984) and Clarkson (1996).

  12. This is mandated under article 10.1 of WADA Code. See World Anti-Doping Agency (2015) World Anti-Doping Code.

  13. Moria et al. (2010).

  14. Opie (2004).

  15. BBC (2017) World Championships 2017: Justin Gatlin booed during gold medal ceremony.

  16. Jeukendrup (2017).

  17. Suzic Lazic et al. (2011). Burke et al. (2000).

  18. Franchini et al. (2012).

  19. Mujika and Padilla (2003).

  20. Myer et al. (2005), Girard et al. (2013), Pyne et al. (2008) and Ford et al. (2005).

  21. De Petrillo et al. (2009).

  22. Birrer and Morgan (2010).

  23. Sailors (2009).

  24. Giblin et al. (2016).

  25. See the establishment of the International Sports Engineering Association (ISEA) at International Sports Engineering Association. In: International Sports Engineering Association. https://www.sportsengineering.org/. Accessed 6 July 2019.

  26. Moria et al. (2010).

  27. Baca and Kornfeind (2006).

  28. Burkett et al. (2011) and Dyer et al. (2011).

  29. Hunter et al. (2019).

  30. Robert F Chapman, J Stray-Gundersen and Benjamin D Levine, ‘Individual Variation in Response to Altitude Training.’ (1998) 85(4) Journal of applied physiology 1448; Benjamin D Levine and James Stray-Gundersen, ‘“Living High-Training Low”: Effect of Moderate-Altitude Acclimatization with Low-Altitude Training on Performance’ (1997) 83(1) Journal of Applied Physiology 102 (‘“Living High-Training Low”’).

  31. Hopkins et al. (1999).

  32. Ibid.

  33. (2019) IAAF Anti-Doping Rules 2019; UCI Anti-doping Programme. In: Union Cycliste Internationale. https://www.uci.org/inside-uci/clean-sport/anti-doping/uci-anti-doping-programme. Accessed 25 January 2021.

  34. World Anti-Doping Agency (2015) World Anti-Doping Code.

  35. World Anti-Doping Agency (2020) World Anti-Doping Code International Standard Prohibited List.

  36. Article 4.3 of the WADA Code. See World Anti-Doping Agency (2015) World Anti-Doping Code.

  37. Court of Arbitration for Sport (2019) Amendments to the Code of Sports-related Arbitration (in force as from 1 January 2019).

  38. Anderson (2013).

  39. World Anti-Doping Agency (2015) World Anti-Doping Code, art. 4.3.

  40. Lavin (1987). Note that in new WADA Code, which comes into effect in 1 January 2021, the sanctions imposed upon the use of recreational drugs is lowered. See World Anti-Doping Agency (2021) World Anti-Doping Code 2021.

  41. See S8 of World Anti-Doping Agency (2020) World Anti-Doping Code International Standard Prohibited List.

  42. Ibid, P1.

  43. Freund et al. (1987), Joyner et al. (1987), Mack et al. (1986), Van Baak et al. (1987) and Yorko et al. (1985).

  44. Opie (2004), p. 275.

  45. FIS Hearing Panel Ruling on Stefan Luitz Case. https://www.fis-ski.com/en/alpine-skiing/alpine-news-multimedia/news-multimedia/news/2018-19/1-january/fis-hearing-panel-ruling-on-stefan-luitz-case. Accessed 25 January 2021.

  46. (2019) CAS Media Release: Alpine Skiing - Anti-Doping. The Court of Arbitration for Sports (CAS) Upholds the Appeal of Stefan Luitz.

  47. (2013) Code Signatories. In: World Anti-Doping Agency. https://www.wada-ama.org/en/what-we-do/the-code/code-signatories. Accessed 13 July 2019.

  48. Opie (2004), p. 275.

  49. Article 2.1 of the WADA Code, World Anti-Doping Agency (2015) World Anti-Doping Code.

  50. Ibid, art. 2.2.

  51. Opie (2004).

  52. Eichner (1993).

  53. Campos et al. (2003).

  54. World Anti-Doping Agency (2015) World Anti-Doping Code.

  55. In contrast to certain sporting bodies which tests of illicit drug use out of competition. See Harcourt et al. (2012).

  56. Mountjoy et al. (2017).

  57. Ibid.

  58. World Anti-Doping Agency (2021) World Anti-Doping Code 2021, art. 10.2.4.

  59. In 2021, the period of ineligibility for use of recreational drugs will be reduced to one to three months. See Ibid.

  60. Weston M, The Regulation of Doping in U.S. And International Sports, ID 2951899, 2017.

  61. Kazlauskas (2010).

  62. Whiting (2013).

  63. Mukhopadhyay (2007).

  64. McLaren R, Independent Person WADA Investigation of Sochi Allegations (Part I), 18 July 2016; McLaren R, Independent Person WADA Investigation of Sochi Allegations (Part II), 9 December 2016.

  65. Toussaint et al. (2002).

  66. Mountjoy et al. (2009).

  67. Chollet et al. (2010).

  68. Kainuma et al. (2009).

  69. Neiva et al. (2011).

  70. The Nike Vaporfly and Nike Alphafly shoes have carbon fibre plates which are intended to deliver a ‘snappy sensation’ with every stride, thereby providing a stiffness and return of energy consumption with every stride in a run. See Nike Air Zoom Alphafly NEXT%. In: Nike.com. https://www.nike.com/sg/running/alphafly. Accessed 10 August 2020.

  71. Hunter et al. (2019).

  72. Reuters (2020) Factbox: Nike’s Vaporfly running shoes and tumbling records. Reuters.

  73. Nike Air Zoom Alphafly NEXT%. In: Nike.com. https://www.nike.com/sg/running/alphafly. Accessed 10 August 2020.

  74. World Athletics (2020) Technical Rules, rule 143.

  75. World Athletics (2020) World Athletics amends rules governing shoe technology and Olympic qualification system| News. https://www.worldathletics.org/news/press-releases/shoe-technology-rules-tokyo-qualification-roa. Accessed 10 August 2020.

  76. (2018) World Para Athletics Rules and Regulations (2018–2019).

  77. (2011) IPC Policy on Sports Equipment.

  78. See Part B, article 7.2.1.4 of (2018) World Para Athletics Rules and Regulations (2018–2019).

  79. Ransone and Hughes (2004).

  80. Ibid.

  81. Wrestling Minimum Weight Certification Programme Information—University Interscholastic League (UIL). In: University Interscholastic League. https://www.uiltexas.org/wrestling/page/wrestling-minimum-weight-certification-program-information. Accessed 8 July 2019.

  82. (2007) IAAF Council introduces rule regarding “technical aids”. https://web.archive.org/web/20080617001525/http://www.iaaf.org/news/Kind%3D512/newsId%3D38127.html. Accessed 8 July 2019.

  83. Lippi and Mattiuzzi (2008).

  84. CAS 2008/A/1480 Oscar Pistorius v/International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF), Award of 16 May 2008.

  85. Oggiano and Sætran (2009) and Schmölzer and Müller (2002).

  86. Smith (1980).

  87. Akuthota and Nadler (2004), Prieske et al. (2016) and Willardson (2007).

  88. Kraemer and Häkkinen (2008), Suchomel et al. (2018) and Hoff et al. (2002).

  89. Laursen et al. (2002) and Rønnestad and Mujika (2014).

  90. Burke et al. (2019).

  91. Jeukendrup (2008) and Jeukendrup (2014).

  92. Jeukendrup (2017).

  93. Ibid.

  94. Mujika et al. (2002).

  95. Mujika et al. (2004).

  96. Bonifazi et al. (2000).

  97. Maughan et al. (2007).

  98. Watson et al. (2008).

  99. Lee et al. (2010).

  100. Ely et al. (2007a, b), Montain et al. (2007) and Vihma (2010).

  101. Lee et al. (2010), Watson et al. (2008), Millard-Stafford et al. (2007) and Senay et al. (1976).

  102. World Anti-Doping Agency (2020) World Anti-Doping Code International Standard Prohibited List, P1.

  103. Chapman, Stray-Gundersen and Levine (n 29).

  104. Levine and Stray-Gundersen (1997).

  105. Ibid.

  106. Vincent Onywera et al, ‘Demographic Characteristics of Elite Kenyan Endurance Runners’ (2006) 24(4) Journal of Sports Sciences 415; Robert A Scott et al, ‘Demographic Characteristics of Elite Ethiopian Endurance Runners’: (2003) 35(10) Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 1727 (‘Demographic Characteristics of Elite Ethiopian Endurance Runners’).

  107. Onywera et al. (2006).

  108. Savulescu (2004).

  109. Woorons et al. (2016).

  110. See S2, World Anti-Doping Agency (2020) World Anti-Doping Code International Standard Prohibited List.

  111. (2009) IAAF Eligibility Regulations for the Female Classification (Athletes with Differences of Sex Development); IAAF introduces new eligibility regulations for female classification| News | iaaf.org. https://www.iaaf.org/news/press-release/eligibility-regulations-for-female-classifica. Accessed 25 January 2021.

  112. World Anti-Doping Agency (2020) World Anti-Doping Code International Standard Prohibited List, P1.

  113. BBC (2017) World Championships 2017: Justin Gatlin booed during gold medal ceremony, p. 2; Sotherton K (2017) Why I joined in the booing of Justin Gatlin. The Telegraph.

  114. Newell C et al. (2017) World 100m champion Justin Gatlin embroiled in new doping scandal. The Telegraph.

  115. Fenno N Russia’s Yulia Efimova, caught up in doping scandal, booed in Olympics debut. In: latimes.com. https://www.latimes.com/sports/la-sp-oly-rio-2016-russia-s-yulia-efimova-caught-up-in-1470603135-htmlstory.html. Accessed 25 January 2021.

  116. Fenno N U.S. swimmer Lilly King spars with Russia’s Yulia Efimova over doping. In: latimes.com. https://www.latimes.com/sports/la-sp-oly-rio-2016-u-s-swimmer-trash-talks-russian-who-1470622298-htmlstory.html. Accessed 13 July 2019.

  117. CAS 2019/A/6148 World Anti-Doping Agency v. Sun Yang & Fédération Internationale de Natation, Award of 28 February 2020; Johnson P (2019) Sun Yang scandal, Mack Horton, Duncan Scott protests, in Gwangju world champs, Chinese doping. News AU; (2019) Mack Horton: Swimmer refuses to join rival Sun Yang on podium. BBC News.

  118. Anderson (2013).

  119. Breivik (1987), Anderson (2013) and Savulescu (2004).

  120. Savulescu (2004).

  121. Kayser et al. (2007).

  122. Anderson (2013).

  123. CAS 98/211 De Bruin v. FINA, Award of 7 June 1999.

  124. Opie (2004).

  125. Ibid, pp. 278–280.

  126. Savulescu (2004), p. 668.

  127. Anderson (2013).

  128. Yesalis et al. (2000).

  129. Petróczi and Aidman (2008), Wiefferink et al. (2007), Petróczi (2007) and Strelan and Boeckmann (2006).

  130. Petróczi and Aidman (2008).

  131. Dimeo et al. (2011).

  132. Dryden (2006).

  133. (2012) WADA: NBA has ‘gaps’ in anti-doping program. In: ESPN.com. https://www.espn.com.au/nba/story/_/id/8521302. Accessed 25 January 2021; (2015) WADA commends introduction of NBA hGH Blood Testing (17 April 2015). In: World Anti-Doping Agency. https://www.wada-ama.org/en/media/news/2015-04/wada-commends-introduction-of-nba-hgh-blood-testing. Accessed 25 January 2021; (2015) WADA Statement on Al Jazeera Documentary (28 December 2015). In: World Anti-Doping Agency. https://www.wada-ama.org/en/media/news/2015-12/wada-statement-on-al-jazeera-documentary. Accessed 25 January 2021.

  134. Howman (2011, 2012).

  135. Wood AO QC J et al. (2018) Report of the Review of Australia’s Sports Integrity Arrangements.

  136. International Sports Engineering Association. In: International Sports Engineering Association. https://www.sportsengineering.org/. Accessed 6 July 2019.

  137. World Athletics (2020) World Athletics amends rules governing shoe technology and Olympic qualification system| News. https://www.worldathletics.org/news/press-releases/shoe-technology-rules-tokyo-qualification-roa. Accessed 10 August 2020.

  138. (2011) IPC Policy on Sports Equipment.

  139. Ibid, 1–2.

  140. (2018) World Para Athletics Rules and Regulations (2018–2019).

  141. Ibid, cl. 7.1.

  142. Ibid, cl. 7.2.

  143. Ibid, cl. 7.3.

References

  • Akuthota V, Nadler SF (2004) Core strengthening. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 85:86–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson J (2013) Doping, sport and the law: time for repeal of prohibition? Int J Law Context 9:135–159. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1744552313000050

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baca A, Kornfeind P (2006) Rapid feedback systems for elite sports training. IEEE Pervasive Comput 5:70–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergström J, Hultman E (1972) Nutrition for maximal sports performance. JAMA 221:999–1006

    Google Scholar 

  • Birrer D, Morgan G (2010) Psychological skills training as a way to enhance an athlete’s performance in high-intensity sports: PST in high-intensity sports. Scand J Med Sci Sports 20:78–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01188.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonifazi M, Sardella F, Lupo C (2000) Preparatory versus main competitions: differences in performances, lactate responses and pre-competition plasma cortisol concentrations in elite male swimmers. Eur J ApplPhysiol 82:368–373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004210000230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boykoff J (2016) Power games: a political history of the olympics. Verso Books, Healesville

    Google Scholar 

  • Breivik G (1987) The doping dilemma. Sportwissenschaft 17:83–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Brotherhood JR (1984) Nutrition and sports performance. Sports Med 1:350–389

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke L, Deakin V, Deakin V (2000) Clinical sports nutrition. McGraw-Hill Beijing, Boston

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke LM, Castell LM, Casa DJ et al (2019) International association of athletics Federations consensus statement 2019: nutrition for athletics. Int J Sport NutrExercMetab 29:73–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Burkett B, McNamee M, Potthast W (2011) Shifting boundaries in sports technology and disability: equal rights or unfair advantage in the case of Oscar Pistorius? DisabSoc 26:643–654

    Google Scholar 

  • Campos DR, Yonamine M, de Moraes Moreau RL (2003) Marijuana as doping in sports. Sports Med 33:395–399. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200333060-00001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman RF, Stray-gundersen J, Levine BD (1998) Individual variation in response to altitude training. J ApplPhysiol 85:1448–1456. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1998.85.4.1448

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chollet D, Chavallard F, Seifert L, Lemaître F (2010) Do Fastskin swimsuits influence coordination in front crawl swimming and glide. Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming XI Norwegian School of Sport Sciences: Oslo 55–57

  • Clarkson PM (1996) Nutrition for improved sports performance. Sports Med 21:393–401

    Google Scholar 

  • De Petrillo LA, Kaufman KA, Glass CR, Arnkoff DB (2009) Mindfulness for long-distance runners: an open trial using mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE). J Clin Sport Psychol 3:357–376. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.3.4.357

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dimeo P, Hunt TM, Horbury R (2011) The individual and the state: a social historical analysis of the east German ‘doping system.’ Sport Hist 31:218–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/17460263.2011.590026

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dryden N (2006) For power and glory: state-sponsored doping and athletes’ human rights. Sports Law J 13:1–40

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyer B, Noroozi S, Sewell P, Redwood S (2011) The fair use of lower-limb running prostheses: a Delphi study. Adapt PhysActiv Q 28:16–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Eichner ER (1993) Ergolytic drugs in medicine and sports. Am J Med 94:205–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(93)90185-R

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ely MR, Cheuvront SN, Montain SJ (2007a) Neither cloud cover nor low solar loads are associated with fast marathon performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39:2029–2035

    Google Scholar 

  • Ely MR, Cheuvront SN, Roberts WO, Montain SJ (2007b) Impact of weather on marathon-running performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39:487–493

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford KR, Myer GD, Smith RL et al (2005) Use of an overhead goal alters vertical jump performance and biomechanics. J Strength Cond Res 19:394–399

    Google Scholar 

  • Franchini E, Brito CJ, Artioli GG (2012) Weight loss in combat sports: physiological, psychological and performance effects. J IntSoc Sports Nutr 9:52

    Google Scholar 

  • Freund BJ, Joyner MJ, Jilka SM et al (1987) Thermoregulation during prolonged exercise in heat: alterations with beta-adrenergic blockade. J ApplPhysiol 63:930–936

    Google Scholar 

  • Giblin G, Tor E, Parrington L (2016) The impact of technology on elite sports performance. Sens J Mind Brain Cult. https://doi.org/10.7790/sa.v12i2.436

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Girard MJ, Strouthidis NG, Desjardins A et al (2013) In vivo optic nerve head biomechanics: performance testing of a three-dimensional tracking algorithm. J R Soc Interface 10:20130459

    Google Scholar 

  • Harcourt PR, Unglik H, Cook JL (2012) A strategy to reduce illicit drug use is effective in elite Australian football. Br J Sports Med 46:943–945. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091329

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoff J, Gran A, Helgerud J (2002) Maximal strength training improves aerobic endurance performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports 12:288–295

    Google Scholar 

  • Holt RIG, Erotokritou-Mulligan I, Sönksen PH (2009) The history of doping and growth hormone abuse in sport. Growth Hormon IGF Res 19:320–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ghir.2009.04.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins WG, Hawley JA, Burke LM (1999) Design and analysis of research on sport performance enhancement. Med Sci Sports Exerc 31:472–485

    Google Scholar 

  • Howman D (2011) Time for a world sports integrity agency. Budapest, Hungary

  • Howman D (2012) Supporting the integrity of sport and combating corruption. Marquette Sports Law Rev 23:245

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter I, McLeod A, Valentine D et al (2019) Running economy, mechanics, and marathon racing shoes. J Sports Sci. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2019.1633837

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeukendrup AE (2008) Carbohydrate feeding during exercise. Eur J Sport Sci 8:77–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461390801918971

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeukendrup A (2014) A step towards personalized sports nutrition: carbohydrate intake during exercise. Sports Med 44:25–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0148-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeukendrup AE (2017) Periodized nutrition for athletes. Sports Med 47:51–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Joyner M, Jilka SM, Taylor JA et al (1987) Beta-blockade reduces tidal volume during heavy exercise in trained and untrained men. J ApplPhysiol 62:1819–1825

    Google Scholar 

  • Kainuma E, Watanabe M, Tomiyama-Miyaji C et al (2009) Proposal of alternative mechanism responsible for the function of high-speed swimsuits. Biomed Res 30:69–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Kayser B, Mauron A, Miah A (2007) Current anti-doping policy: a critical appraisal. BMC Med Ethics 8:2

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazlauskas R (2010) Designer steroids. In: Doping in sports: biochemical principles, effects and analysis. Springer, pp 155–185

  • Kraemer WJ, Häkkinen K (2008) Handbook of sports medicine and science, strength training for sport. Wiley, Hoboken

    Google Scholar 

  • Laursen PB, Shing CM, Peake JM et al (2002) Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34:1801–1807. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200211000-00017

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lavin M (1987) Sports and drugs: are the current bans justified? J Philos Sport 14:34–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.1987.9714449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee JK, Nio AQ, Lim CL et al (2010) Thermoregulation, pacing and fluid balance during mass participation distance running in a warm and humid environment. Eur J ApplPhysiol 109:887–898

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine BD, Stray-Gundersen J (1997) “Living high-training low”: effect of moderate-altitude acclimatization with low-altitude training on performance. J ApplPhysiol 83:102–112. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1997.83.1.102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lippi G, Mattiuzzi C (2008) Pistorius ineligible for the Olympic Games: the right decision. Br J Sports Med 42:160–161. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2008.046730

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mack GW, Shannon LM, Nadel ER (1986) Influence of beta-adrenergic blockade on the control of sweating in humans. J ApplPhysiol 61:1701–1705

    Google Scholar 

  • Maughan RJ, Shirreffs SM, Watson P (2007) Exercise, heat, hydration and the brain. J Am CollNutr 26:604S-612S

    Google Scholar 

  • Millard-Stafford ML, Cureton KJ, Wingo JE et al (2007) Hydration during exercise in warm, humid conditions: effect of a caffeinated sports drink. Int J Sport NutrExercMetab 17:163–177

    Google Scholar 

  • Montain SJ, Ely MR, Cheuvront SN (2007) Marathon performance in thermally stressing conditions. Sports Med 37:320–323

    Google Scholar 

  • Moria H, Chowdhury H, Alam F et al (2010) Contribution of swimsuits to swimmer’s performance. ProcediaEng 2:2505–2510

    Google Scholar 

  • Mountjoy M, Gordon I, McKeown J, Constantini N (2009) Medical complications of an aquatic innovation. Br J Sports Med 43:979–980

    Google Scholar 

  • Mountjoy M, Miller S, Vallini M et al (2017) International Sports Federation’s fight to protect the clean athlete: are we doing enough in the fight against doping? Br J Sports Med 51:1241–1242. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097870

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mujika I, Padilla S (2003) Scientific bases for precompetition tapering strategies. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35:1182–1187

    Google Scholar 

  • Mujika I, Goya A, Ruiz E et al (2002) Physiological and performance responses to a 6-day taper in middle-distance runners: influence of training frequency. Int J Sports Med 23:367–373. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2002-33146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mujika I, Padilla S, Pyne D, Busso T (2004) Physiological changes associated with the pre-event taper in athletes. Sports Med 34:891–927

    Google Scholar 

  • Mukhopadhyay R (2007) Catching the bad sports. ACS Publications, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Myer GD, Ford KR, PALUMBO OP, Hewett TE, (2005) Neuromuscular training improves performance and lower-extremity biomechanics in female athletes. J Strength Cond Res 19:51–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Neiva HP, Vilas-Boas JP, Barbosa TM et al (2011) 13th FINA world championships: analysis of swimsuits used by elite male swimmers. J Human Sport Exerc 6:87–93. https://doi.org/10.4100/jhse.2011.61.10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oggiano L, Sætran L (2009) Effects of body weight on ski jumping performances under the new FIS rules (P3). In: The engineering of sport 7. Springer, pp 1–9

  • Opie H (2004) Drugs in sports and the law - moral authority, diversity and the pursuit of excellence. Marquette Sports Law Rev 14:267–281

    Google Scholar 

  • Petróczi A (2007) Attitudes and doping: a structural equation analysis of the relationship between athletes’ attitudes, sport orientation and doping behaviour. Substance Abuse Treat Preven Policy 2:34

    Google Scholar 

  • Petróczi A, Aidman E (2008) Psychological drivers in doping: the life-cycle model of performance enhancement. Substance Abuse Treat Preven Policy 3:7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1747-597X-3-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prieske O, Muehlbauer T, Borde R et al (2016) Neuromuscular and athletic performance following core strength training in elite youth soccer: Role of instability. Scand J Med Sci Sports 26:48–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Pyne DB, Saunders PU, Montgomery PG et al (2008) Relationships between repeated sprint testing, speed, and endurance. J Strength Cond Res 22:1633–1637

    Google Scholar 

  • Ransone J, Hughes B (2004) Body-weight fluctuation in collegiate wrestlers: implications of the national collegiate athletic association weight-certification program. J Athl Train 39:162–165

    Google Scholar 

  • Rønnestad BR, Mujika I (2014) Optimizing strength training for running and cycling endurance performance: a review. Scand J Med Sci Sports 24:603–612

    Google Scholar 

  • Sailors PR (2009) More than a pair of shoes: running and technology. J Philos Sport 36:207–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2009.9714757

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Savulescu J (2004) Why we should allow performance enhancing drugs in sport. Br J Sports Med 38:666–670. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2003.005249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmölzer B, Müller W (2002) The importance of being light: aerodynamic forces and weight in ski jumping. J Biomech 35:1059–1069

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott RA, Georgiades E, Wilson RH et al (2003) Demographic characteristics of elite Ethiopian endurance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35:1727–1732. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000089335.85254.89

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Senay LC, Mitchell D, Wyndham CH (1976) Acclimatization in a hot, humid environment: body fluid adjustments. J ApplPhysiol 40:786–796

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith NJ (1980) Excessive weight loss and food aversion in athletes simulating anorexia nervosa. Pediatrics 66:139–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Strelan P, Boeckmann RJ (2006) Why drug testing in elite sport does not work: perceptual deterrence theory and the role of personal moral beliefs 1. J ApplSocPsychol 36:2909–2934

    Google Scholar 

  • Suchomel TJ, Nimphius S, Bellon CR, Stone MH (2018) The importance of muscular strength: training considerations. Sports Med 48:765–785

    Google Scholar 

  • SuzicLazic J, Dikic N, Radivojevic N et al (2011) Dietary supplements and medications in elite sport–polypharmacy or real need? Scand J Med Sci Sports 21:260–267

    Google Scholar 

  • Swaddling J (1999) The ancient Olympic games. University of Texas Press, Austin

    Google Scholar 

  • Toussaint HM, Truijens M, Elzinga M-J et al (2002) Swimming: effect of a fast-skinTM‘body’suit on drag during front crawl swimming. Sports Biomech 1:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Baak MA, Böhm ROB, Arends BG et al (1987) Long-term antihypertensive therapy with beta-blockers: submaximal exercise capacity and metabolic effects during exercise. Int J Sports Med 8:342–347

    Google Scholar 

  • Vihma T (2010) Effects of weather on the performance of marathon runners. Int J Biometeorol 54:297–306

    Google Scholar 

  • VincentO O, RobertA S, MichaelK B, YannisP P (2006) Demographic characteristics of elite Kenyan endurance runners. J Sports Sci 24:415–422

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson P, Love TD, Maughan RJ, Shirreffs SM (2008) A comparison of the effects of milk and a carbohydrate-electrolyte drink on the restoration of fluid balance and exercise capacity in a hot, humid environment. Eur J ApplPhysiol 104:633–642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-008-0809-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whiting GW (2013) Traveling with Marion: the rise, fall, and redemption of Marion Jones. Int J Sport Soc 3:1–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiefferink CH, Detmar SB, Coumans B et al (2007) Social psychological determinants of the use of performance-enhancing drugs by gym users. Health Educ Res 23:70–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Willardson JM (2007) Core stability training: applications to sports conditioning programs. J Strength Cond Res 21:979–985

    Google Scholar 

  • Woorons X, Mucci P, Richalet JP, Pichon A (2016) Hypoventilation training at supramaximal intensity improves swimming performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 48:1119–1128. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000863

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yesalis CE, Bahrke MS, Wright JE (2000) Societal alternatives to anabolic steroid use. Clin J Sport Med 10:1

    Google Scholar 

  • Yorko J, Paran E, Hare T et al (1985) Effect of beta blockade on strength performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 17:239

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges the invaluable guidance of Hayden Opie A.M., whose support and expertise enabled the seeds of ideas to bear fruit in this contribution. The author also acknowledges the sport science expertise of Volker Herrmann, and the feedback of Björn Hessert, LL.M., who made this contribution possible.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Sports Law Studies, Melbourne Law School, The University of Melbourne, 185 Pelham Street, Carlton, Victoria, 3053, Australia

    Chui Ling Goh

Authors
  1. Chui Ling Goh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chui Ling Goh.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Goh, C.L. The challenge of regulating doping and non-doping ‘performance-enhancing strategies’ in elite sports. Int Sports Law J 21, 47–61 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40318-021-00183-1

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40318-021-00183-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation