Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Biomechanics of the Modern Golf Swing: Implications for Lower Back Injuries

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The modern golf swing is a complex and asymmetrical movement that places an emphasis on restricting pelvic turn while increasing thorax rotation during the backswing to generate higher clubhead speeds at impact. Increasing thorax rotation relative to pelvic rotation preloads the trunk muscles by accentuating their length and allowing them to use the energy stored in their elastic elements to produce more power. As the thorax and pelvis turn back towards the ball during the downswing, more skilled golfers are known to laterally slide their pelvis toward the target, which further contributes to final clubhead speed. However, despite the apparent performance benefits associated with these sequences, it has been argued that the lumbar spine is incapable of safely accommodating the forces they produce. This notion supports a link between the repeated performance of the golf swing and the development of golf-related low back injuries. Of the complaints reported by golfers, low back injuries continue to be the most prevalent, but the mechanism of these injuries is still poorly understood. This review highlights that there is a paucity of research directly evaluating the apparent link between the modern golf swing and golf-related low back pain. Furthermore, there has been a general lack of consensus within the literature with respect to the methods used to objectively assess the golf swing and the methods used to derived common outcome measures. Future research would benefit from a clear set of guidelines to help reduce the variability between studies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Hume PA, Keogh J, Reid D. The role of biomechanics in maximising distance and accuracy of golf shots. Sports Med. 2005;35(5):429–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Frymoyer JW, Nachemsom A. Natural history of low back disorders. In: Frymoyer JW, Ducker TB, Hadler NM, et al., editors. The adult spine: principles and practice. New York: Raven Press, Ltd.; 1991. p. 1537–50.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Horton JF, Lindsay DM, Macintosh BR. Abdominal muscle activation of elite male golfers with chronic low back pain. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(10):1647–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Kim DH, Millett PJ, Warner JJP. Shoulder injuries in golf. Am J Sports Med. 2004;32(5):1324–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Richards J, Farrell M, Kent J, et al. Weight transfer patterns during the golf swing. Res Q Exerc Sport. 1985;56(4):361–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Sprigings EJ, Neal RJ. An insight into the importance of wrist torque in driving the golfball: a simulation study. J Appl Biomech. 2000;16(4):356–66.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Sprigings EJ, Mackenzie SJ. Examining the delayed release in the golf swing using computer simulation. Sports Eng. 2002;5(1):23–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Penner AR. The physics of golf. Rep Prog Phys. 2003;66(2):131–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Egret CI, Dujardin FH, Weber J, et al. 3-D kinematic analysis of the golf swing of expert and experienced golfers. J Hum Mov Stud. 2004;47:193–204.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Wallace ES, Otto SR, Nevill AM. Ball launch conditions for skilled golfers using drivers of different lengths in an indoor testing facility. J Sports Sci. 2007;25(7):731–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Joyce C, Burnett A, Cochrane J, et al. Three-dimensional trunk kinematics in golf: between-club differences and relationships to clubhead speed. Sports Biomech. 2013;12(2):108–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Sweeney M, Mills P, Alderson J, et al. The influence of club-head kinematics on early ball flight characteristics in the golf drive. Sports Biomech. 2013;12(3):247–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Thériault G, Lachance P. Golf injuries: an overview. Sports Med. 1998;26(1):43–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Nagao N, Sawada Y. A kinematic analysis of the golf swing by means of fast motion picture in connection with wrist action. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1977;17(4):413–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Fischer B, Watkins RG. Golf. In: Watkins RG, Williams L, Lin P, et al., editors. The spine in sports. New York: Mosby-Year Book, Inc.; 1996. p. 505–14.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Hetu FE, Christie CA, Faigenbaum AD. Effects of conditioning on physical fitness and club head speed in mature golfers. Percept Mot Skills. 1998;86(3):811–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Watkins RG. Spinal problems: examining the golfer’s back. Sports Med Update. 1999;14(1):10–1.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Lindsay DM, Vandervoort AA. Golf-related low back pain: a review of causative factors and prevention strategies. Asian J Sports Med. 2014;5(4):e24289.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Bulbulian R, Ball KA, Seaman DR. The short golf backswing: effects on performance and spinal health implications. J Manip Physiol Ther. 2001;24(9):569–75.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Parziale JR, Mallon WJ. Golf injuries and rehabilitation. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2006;17:589–607.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Cole MH. Professionalism, golf coaching and a master of science degree: a commentary. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2014;9(4):861–4.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Grimshaw PN, Giles A, Tong R, et al. Low back and elbow injuries in golf. Sports Med. 2002;32(10):655–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Evans K, Refshauge KM, Adams R, et al. Predictors of low back pain in young elite golfers: a preliminary study. Phys Ther Sport. 2005;6(3):122–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. McHardy A, Pollard H, Luo K. Golf injuries: a review of the literature. Sports Med. 2006;36(2):171–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Stude DE, Hulbert J, Schoepp D. Practice behaviors, attitudes, musculoskeletal complaints, and previous exposure to chiropractic care in a group of recreational golfers. J Manip Physiol Ther. 2008;31:313–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. McCarroll JR, Rettig AC, Shelbourne KD. Injuries in the amateur golfer. Phys Sportsmed. 1990;18(3):122–6.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Batt ME. A survey of golf injuries in amateur golfers. Br J Sports Med. 1992;26(1):63–5.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Hosea TM, Gatt CJ. Back pain in golf. Clin Sports Med. 1996;15(1):37–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Sugaya H, Tsuchiya A, Moriya H, et al. Low back injury in elite and professional golfers: An epidemiologic and radiographic study. In: Farrally MR, Cochran AJ, editors. Science and golf III: proceedings of the World Scientific Congress of Golf. Champaign: Human Kinetics Publishers; 1999. p. 83–91.

    Google Scholar 

  30. McHardy A, Pollard H, Luo K. Golf-related lower back injuries: an epidemiological survey. J Chiropr Med. 2007;6(1):20–6.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Burdorf A, Van Der Steenhoven GA, Tromp-Klaren EGM. A one-year prospective study on back pain among novice golfers. Am J Sports Med. 1996;24(5):659–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Thériault G, Lacoste E, Gaboury M, et al. Golf injury characteristics: a survey from 528 golfers. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996;28(5):S389.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Finch CF, Sherman CA, James T. The epidemiology of golf injuries in Victoria, Australia: evidence from sports medicine clinics and emergency department presentations. In: Farrally MR, Cochran AJ, editors. Science and golf III: proceedings of the World Scientific Congress of Golf. Champaign: Human Kinetics Publishers; 1999. p. 73–82.

    Google Scholar 

  34. McHardy A, Pollard H, Luo K. One-year follow-up study on golf injuries in Australian amateur golfers. Am J Sports Med. 2007;35(8):1354–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. McCarroll JR, Gioe TJ. Professional golfers and the price they pay. Phys Sportsmed. 1982;10(7):64–70.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Nesbit SM, Serrano M. Work and power analysis of the golf swing. J Sports Sci Med. 2005;4(4):520–33.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Cann AP, Vandervoort AA, Lindsay DM. Optimizing the benefits versus risks of golf participation by older people. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2005;28(3):85–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Hosea TM, Gatt CJ, Gertner E. Biomechanical analysis of the golfer’s back. In: Stover CN, McCarroll JR, Mallon WJ, editors. Feeling up to par: medicine from tee to green. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 1994. p. 97–108.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Fleisig GS. The biomechanics of golf. In: Stover CN, McCarroll JR, Mallon WJ, editors. Feeling up to par: medicine from tee to green. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 1994. p. 17–26.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Beak SH, Choi A, Choi SW, et al. Upper torso and pelvis linear velocity during the downswing of elite golfers. Biomed Eng online. 2013;12(13):1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Horan SA, Kavanagh JJ. The control of upper body segment speed and velocity during the golf swing. Sports Biomech. 2012;11(2):165–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Tucker CB, Anderson R, Kenny IC. Is outcome related to movement variability in golf? Sports Biomech. 2013;12(4):343–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Bradshaw EJ, Keogh JWL, Hume PA, et al. The effect of biological movement variability on the performance of the golf swing in high- and low-handicapped players. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2009;80(2):185–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Knight CA. Neuromotor issues in the learning and control of golf skill. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2004;75(1):9–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Horan SA, Evans K, Kavanagh JJ. Movement variability in the golf swing of male and female skilled golfers. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(8):1474–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Adlington GS. Proper swing technique and biomechanics of golf. Clin Sports Med. 1996;15(1):9–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Maddalozzo GFJ. An anatomical and biomechanical analysis of the full golf swing. Natl Strength Cond Assoc J. 1987;9(4):6–8, 77–9.

  48. Seaman DR, Bulbulian R. A review of back pain in golfers: etiology and prevention. Sports Med Train Rehab. 2000;9(3):169–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Seaman DR. Back pain in golfers: etiology and prevention. J Sports Chiropr Rehab. 1998;12(2):45–54.

    Google Scholar 

  50. McNitt-Gray JL, Munaretto J, Zaferiou A, et al. Regulation of reaction forces during the golf swing. Sports Biomech. 2013;12(2):121–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Pataky TC. Correlation between maximum in-shoe plantar pressures and clubhead speed in amateur golfers. J Sports Sci. 2015;33(2):192–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. McHardy A, Pollard H. Golf and upper limb injuries: a summary and review of the literature. Chiropr Osteopat. 2005;13(7):1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Mitchell K, Banks S, Morgan D, et al. Shoulder motions during the golf swing in male amateur golfers. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2003;33(4):196–203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Zheng N, Barrentine SW, Fleisig GS, et al. Swing kinematics for male and female pro golfers. Int J Sports Med. 2008;29(12):965–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Barrentine SW. Low back injuries: an examination of the biomechanics of golf. Sports Med Update. 1999;14(1):8–9.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Hendry WG. The technique of the swing. The dynamic anatomy of the golf swing: a scientific approach to improvement at golf. Lonsdale: The Parthenon Press Ltd; 1985. p. 15–25.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Egret CI, Vincent O, Weber J, et al. Analysis of 3D kinematics concerning three different clubs in golf swing. Int J Sports Med. 2003;24(6):465–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Fletcher IM, Hartwell M. Effect of an 8-week combined weights and plyometrics training program on golf drive performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2004;18(1):59–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Seaman DR. The influence of a chiropractic manipulation on lumbar kinematics and electromyography during simple and complex tasks: a case study. J Manip Physiol Ther. 2000;23(6):437–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Enoka RM. Neuromechanics of human movement. 5th ed. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  61. McLean J. Widen the gap. Golf Magazine. 1992;34(12):49–53.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Myers J, Lephart S, Tsai YS, et al. The role of upper torso and pelvis rotation in driving performance during the golf swing. J Sports Sci. 2008;26(2):181–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Cole MH, Grimshaw PN. The X-factor and its relationship to golfing performance. J Quant Anal Sports. 2009;41(13):Article 9.

  64. McTeigue M, Lamb SR, Mottram R, et al. Spine and hip motion analysis during the golf swing. In: Cochran AJ, Farrally MR, editors. Science and golf II: proceedings of the World Scientific Congress of Golf. London: E & FN Spon; 1994. p. 50–8.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Kwon YH, Han KH, Como C, et al. Validity of the X-factor computation methods and relationship between the X-factor parameters and clubhead velocity in skilled golfers. Sports Biomech. 2013;12(3):231–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Brown SJ, Selbie WS, Wallace ES. The X-factor: an evaluation of common methods used to analyse major inter-segment kinematics during the golf swing. J Sports Sci. 2013;31(11):1156–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Burden AM, Grimshaw PN, Wallace ES. Hip and shoulder rotations during the golf swing of sub-10 handicap players. J Sports Sci. 1998;16(2):165–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Cole MH, Grimshaw PN. The crunch factor’s role in golf-related low back pain. Spine J. 2014;14(5):799–807.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Grimshaw PN, Burden AM. Case report: reduction of low back pain in a professional golfer. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(10):1667–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Wheat JS, Vernon T, Milner CE. The measurement of upper body alignment during the golf drive. J Sports Sci. 2007;25(7):749–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Cochran A, Stobbs J. The search for the perfect swing. London: Morrison & Gibb Ltd; 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Pickering WM. A computational study of the double pendulum model of the golf swing. In: Haake SJ, editor. The engineering of sport: design and development. London: Blackwell Science; 2000. p. 353–60.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Jorgensen T. On the dynamics of the swing of a golf club. Am J Phys. 1970;38(5):644–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Campbell KR, Reid RE. The application of optimal control theory to simplified models of complex human motions: the golf swing. In: Winter DA, Norman RW, Wells RP, et al., editors. Biomechanics IX-B. Baltimore: Human Kinetics; 1985. p. 527–38.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Neal RJ, Wilson BD. 3D kinematics and kinetics of the golf swing. Int J Sport Biomech. 1985;1(3):221–32.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Coleman SGS, Anderson D. An examination of the planar nature of golf club motion in the swings of experienced players. J Sports Sci. 2007;25(7):739–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Coleman SGS, Rankin AJ. A three-dimensional examination of the planar nature of the golf swing. J Sports Sci. 2005;23(3):227–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. McNally MP, Yontz N, Chaudhari AM. Lower extremity work is associated with club head velocity during the golf swing in experienced golfers. Int J Sports Med. 2014;35(9):785–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Koslow R. Patterns of weight shift in the swings of beginning golfers. Percept Mot Skills. 1994;79(3):1296–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Sim T, Jang DJ, Oh E. A methodological approach for the biomechanical cause analysis of golf-related lumbar spine injuries. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Eng. 2014;17(16):1801–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Choi A, Joo SB, Oh E, et al. Kinematic evaluation of movement smoothness in golf: relationship between the normalized jerk cost of body joints and the clubhead. Biomed Eng (NY). 2014;13(20):1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Bunn JW. Scientific principles of coaching. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall; 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Cheetham PJ, Martin PE, Mottram RE, et al. The importance of stretching the “X-factor” in the downswing of golf: the “X-factor stretch”. In: Thomas PR, editor. Optimising performance in golf. Brisbane: Australian Academic Press; 2001. p. 192–9.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Milburn PD. Summation of segmental velocities in the golf swing. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1982;14(1):60–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Fedorcik GG, Queen RM, Abbey AN, et al. Differences in wrist mechanics during the golf swing based on golf handicap. J Sci Med Sport. 2012;15(3):250–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Miura K, Naruo T. Accelerating and decelerating phases of the wrist motion of the golf swing. In: Haake SJ, editor. The engineering of sport: design and development. London: Blackwell Science; 2000. p. 455–63.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Teu KK, Kim W, Fuss FK, et al. The analysis of golf swing as a kinematic chain using dual Euler angle algorithm. J Biomech. 2006;39:1227–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Nesbit SM. A three dimensional kinematic and kinetic study of the golf swing. J Sports Sci Med. 2005;4(4):499–519.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Adams MA, Bogduk N, Burton K, et al. The biomechanics of back pain. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Bogduk N. Clinical anatomy of the lumbar spine and sacrum. 3rd ed. New York: Churchill-Livingstone; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Hosea TM, Gatt CJ, Galli KM, et al. Biomechanical analysis of the golfer’s back. In: Cochran AJ, editor. Science and golf: proceedings of the First World Scientific Congress of Golf. London: E & FN Spon; 1990. p. 43–8.

    Google Scholar 

  92. McCarroll JR. Overuse injuries of the upper extremity in golf. Clin Sports Med. 2001;20(3):469–79.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Gluck GS, Bendo JA, Spivak JM. The lumbar spine and low back pain in golf: a literature review of swing biomechanics and injury prevention. Spine J. 2008;8(5):778–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Gosheger G, Liem D, Ludwig K, et al. Injuries and overuse syndromes in golf. Am J Sports Med. 2003;31(3):438–43.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. McCarroll JR, Mallon WJ. Epidemiology of golf injuries. In: Stover CN, McCarroll JR, Mallon WJ, editors. Feeling up to par: medicine from tee to green. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 1994. p. 9–13.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Lindsay DM, Horton JF. Comparison of spine motion in elite golfers with and without low back pain. J Sports Sci. 2002;20(8):599–605.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Tsai YS, Sell T, Smoliga JM, et al. A comparison of physical characteristics and swing mechanics between golfers with and without a history of low back pain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2010;40(7):430–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Vad VB, Bhat AL, Basrai D, et al. Low back pain in professional golfers: the role of associated hip and low back range-of-motion deficits. Am J Sports Med. 2004;32(2):494–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Reinhardt G. The role of decreased hip IR as a cause of low back pain in a golfer: a case report. HSS J. 2013;9(3):278–83.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Sugaya H, Moriya H, Takahashi K, et al. Asymmetric radiographic findings on the lumbar spine in elite and professional golfers. Orthop Trans. 1997;21(1):312–3.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Sugaya H, Morgan DA, Banks SA, et al. Golf and low back injury: defining the crunch factor. 22nd Annual Meeting of the American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine; 22–25 June 1997; Sun Valley, Idaho.

  102. Morgan D, Sugaya H, Banks S, et al. A new twist on golf kinematics and low back injuries: the crunch factor. 21st Annual Meeting of the American Society of Biomechanics; 24–27 Sep 1997; Clemson.

  103. Ellison JB, Rose SJ, Sahrmann SA. Patterns of hip rotation range of motion: a comparison between healthy subjects and patients with low back pain. Phys Ther. 1990;70(9):537–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Wong TKT, Lee RYW. Effects of low back pain on the relationship between the movements of the lumbar spine and hip. Hum Mov Sci. 2004;23(1):21–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Gombatto SP, Collins DR, Sahrmann SA, et al. Gender differences in pattern of hip and lumbopelvic rotation in people with low back pain. Clin Biomech. 2006;21:263–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Dolan P, Adams MA. Influence of lumbar and hip mobility on the bending stresses acting on the lumbar spine. Clin Biomech. 1993;8(4):185–92.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Jenkins WL, Callaway P, Malone TR. Rehabilitation of the injured golfer. In: Stover CN, McCarroll JR, Mallon WJ, editors. Feeling up to par: medicine from tee to green. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 1994. p. 183–98.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Lindsay DM, Horton JF, Vandervoort AA. A review of injury characteristics, aging factors and prevention programmes for the older golfer. Sports Med. 2000;30(2):89–103.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Cole MH, Grimshaw PN. Electromyography of the trunk and abdominal muscles in golfers with and without low back pain. J Sci Med Sport. 2008;11(2):174–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Cole MH, Grimshaw PN. Trunk muscle onset and cessation in golfers with and without low back pain. J Biomech. 2008;41(13):2829–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Stokes IAF, Henry SM, Single RM. Surface EMG electrodes do not accurately record from lumbar multifidus muscles. Clin Biomech. 2003;18(1):9–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Clarys JP, Cabri J. Electromyography and the study of sports movements: a review. J Sports Sci. 1993;11(5):379–448.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Abernethy B, Neal RJ, Moran MJ, et al. Expert-novice differences in muscle activity during the golf swing. In: Cochran AJ, editor. Science and golf: proceedings of the first World Scientific Congress of Golf. London: E & FN Spon; 1990. p. 54–60.

    Google Scholar 

  114. Kao JT, Pink M, Jobe FW, et al. Electromyographic analysis of the scapular muscles during the golf swing. Am J Sports Med. 1995;23(1):19–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Pink M, Jobe FW, Perry J. Electromyographic analysis of the shoulder during the golf swing. Am J Sports Med. 1990;18(2):137–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Bradley JP, Tibone JE. Electromyographic analysis of muscle action about the shoulder. Clin Sports Med. 1991;10(4):789–805.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Jobe FW, Moynes DR, Antonelli DJ. Rotator cuff function during the golf swing. Am J Sports Med. 1986;14(5):388–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Jobe FW, Perry J, Pink M. Electromyographic shoulder activity in men and women professional golfers. Am J Sports Med. 1989;17(6):782–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Watkins RG, Uppal GS, Perry J, et al. Dynamic electromyographic analysis of trunk musculature in professional golfers. Am J Sports Med. 1996;24(4):535–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Pink M, Perry J, Jobe FW. Electromyographic analysis of the trunk in golfers. Am J Sports Med. 1993;21(3):385–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Silva L, Marta S, Vaz J, et al. Trunk muscle activation during golf swing: baseline and threshold. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 2013;23(5):1174–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Bechler JR, Jobe FW, Pink M, et al. Electromyographic analysis of the hip and knee during the golf swing. Clin J Sport Med. 1995;5(3):162–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Okuda I, Armstrong CW, Tsunezumi H, et al. Biomechanical analysis of professional golfer’s swing: Hidemichi Tanaka. In: Thain E, editor. Science and golf IV: proceedings of the World Scientific Congress of Golf. New York: Routledge; 2002. p. 18–27.

    Google Scholar 

  124. Barclay JK, McIlroy WE. Effect of skill level on muscle activity in neck and forearm muscles during the golf swing. In: Cochran AJ, editor. Science and golf: proceedings of the first World Scientific Congress of Golf. London: E & FN Spon; 1990. p. 49–53.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Farber A, Smith J, Kvitne R, et al. Electromyographic analysis of forearm muscles in professional and amateur golfers. Am J Sports Med. 2009;37(2):396–401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Batt ME. Golfing injuries: an overview. Sports Med. 1993;16(1):64–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Lim YT. Lower trunk muscle activities during the golf swing: pilot study. Third North American Congress on Biomechanics, combined with the Twenty-Second Annual Conference of the American Society of Biomechanics and the Tenth Biennial Conference of the Canadian Society of Biomechanics; 14–18 Aug 1998; Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.

  128. McHardy A, Pollard H. Muscle activity during the golf swing. Br J Sports Med. 2005;39:799–804.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Carlsöö S. A kinetic analysis of the golf swing. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1967;7(2):76–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Lim YT, Chow JW, Chae WS. Lumbar spinal loads and muscle activity during a golf swing. Sports Biomech. 2012;11(2):197–211.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Marta S, Silva L, Castro MA, et al. Electromyography variables during the golf swing: a literature review. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 2012;22(6):803–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. McGill SM. Electromyographic activity of the abdominals and low back musculature during the generation of isometric and dynamic axial trunk torque: implications for lumbar mechanics. J Orthop Res. 1991;9(1):91–103.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Reeves NP, Narendra KS, Cholewicki J. Spine stability: the six blind men and the elephant. Clin Biomech. 2007;22:266–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  134. Hubley-Kozey CL, Vezina MJ. Differentiating temporal electromyographic waveforms between those with chronic low back pain and healthy controls. Clin Biomech. 2002;17(9):621–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Hides JA, Richardson CA, Jull GA. Multifidus muscle recovery is not automatic after resolution of acute, first-episode low back pain. Spine. 1996;21(23):2763–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Roy S, DeLuca CJ, Casavant D. Lumbar muscle fatigue and chronic low back pain. Spine. 1989;14:992–1001.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Hodges PW, Richardson CA. Inefficient muscular stabilization of the lumbar spine associated with low back pain: a motor control evaluation of transversus abdominis. Spine. 1996;21(22):2640–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Evans C, Oldreive W. A study to investigate whether golfers with a history of low back pain show a reduced endurance of transversus abdominis. J Man Manip Ther. 2000;8(4):162–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. Suter E, Lindsay DM. Back muscle fatigability is associated with knee extensor inhibition in subjects with low back pain. Spine. 2001;26(16):E361–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Weishaupt P, Obermüller R, Denner A, et al. Golfer’s spine-stabilizing muscles and their dependence on handicap and back pain. Int J Sports Med. 2002;23:S118.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Lindsay DM, Horton JF. Trunk rotation strength and endurance in healthy normals and elite male golfers with and without low back pain. N Am J Sports Phys Ther. 2006;1(2):80–9.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Hodges PW. The role of the motor system in spinal pain: Implications for rehabilitation of the athlete following lower back pain. J Sci Med Sport. 2000;3(3):243–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. O’Sullivan PB, Twomey L, Allison GT. Altered abdominal muscle recruitment in patients with chronic low back pain following a specific exercise intervention. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1998;27(2):114–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Exercise Science, Australian Catholic University, Virginia, P.O. Box 456, Brisbane, QLD, 4014, Australia

    Michael H. Cole

  2. School of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia

    Paul N. Grimshaw

Authors
  1. Michael H. Cole
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Paul N. Grimshaw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael H. Cole.

Ethics declarations

Funding

No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this article.

Conflict of interest

Michael Cole and Paul Grimshaw declare that they have no conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this review.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Cole, M.H., Grimshaw, P.N. The Biomechanics of the Modern Golf Swing: Implications for Lower Back Injuries. Sports Med 46, 339–351 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0429-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0429-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation