Abstract
This study reports the trihalomethanes generated during disinfection within the water distribution network of Delhi, India. For 12 months study period tap water samples were collected (n = 216) from the command areas of nine water treatment plants to provide a comprehensive picture of spatial and seasonal variation of trihalomethanes in the city. The mean concentrations of chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, bromoform were 34.62 ± 13.09 μg/l, 25.39 ± 11.75 μg/l, 15.83 ± 9.66 μg/l, 1.74 ± 1.51 μg/l respectively, the total trihalomethanes concentration ranged between 11.41–175.54 μg/l. Chloroform was prevalent accounting 45% in total trihalomethanes followed by bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, bromoform accounting 33%, 20%, and 2% respectively. Trihalomethanes concentrations were found to be increasing during summer season and got decreased in the winter and post-monsoon season. Total trihalomethanes levels were found to be highest at Chandrawal water treatment plant command area (85.35–148.38 μg/l) and lowest at Okhla water treatment plant command area (11.41–63.38 μg/l). In many samples trihalomethanes concentrations were discovered to be higher than the allowable limit specified by Indian Standards. A strong relationship between trihalomethanes formation with total organic carbon (r = 0.934) and residual chlorine (r = 0.801) accentuate its capability for monitoring disinfection by-products in the distribution network. Results showed that considerable levels of trihalomethanes are generated in the study area, therefore the competent authorities must take the appropriate steps to regularly monitor the trihalomethanes in drinking water. The findings of this study may help to provide operators with invaluable information on drinking water quality and open up several chances to enhance water quality management.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.
References
Ahmed F, Khan TA, Fakhruddin ANM, Rahman MM, Mazumdar RM, Ahmed S, Imam MT, Kabir M, Abdullah ATM (2019) Estimation and exposure concentration of trihalomethanes (THMs) and its human carcinogenic risk in supplied pipeline water of Dhaka City. Bangladesh Environ Sci Pollut Res 26:16316–16330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05049-6
Albanakis C, Tsanana E, Fragkaki AG (2021) Modeling and prediction of trihalomethanes in the drinking water treatment plant of Thessaloniki. Greece J Water Process Eng 43:102252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.102252
APHA (2017) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. Am Public Health Assoc 51:1–1274. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.51.6.940-a
Badawy MI, Gad-Allah TA, Ali MEM, Yoon Y (2012) Minimization of the formation of disinfection by-products. Chemosphere 89:235–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.04.025
Barul C, Fayossé A, Carton M, Pilorget C, Woronoff AS, Stücker I, Luce D (2017) Occupational exposure to chlorinated solvents and risk of head and neck cancer in men: a population-based case-control study in France. Environ Health A Glob Access Sci Source 16:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-017-0286-5
Beane Freeman LE, Cantor KP, Baris D, Nuckols JR, Johnson A, Colt JS, Schwenn M, Ward MH, Lubin JH, Waddell R, Hosain GM, Paulu C, McCoy R, Moore LE, Huang AT, Rothman N, Karagas MR, Silverman DT (2017) Bladder cancer and water disinfection by-product exposures through multiple routes: a population-based case–control study (New England, USA). Environ Health Perspect 125:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP89
Bove GE, Rogerson PA, Vena JE (2007) Case control study of the geographic variability of exposure to disinfectant byproducts and risk for rectal cancer. Int J Health Geogr 6:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-072X-6-18
Brown D, Bridgeman J, West JR (2011) Predicting chlorine decay and THM formation in water supply systems. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 10:79–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-011-9229-8
CDWQ (2006) National Standard of the People’s Republic of China Standards for Drinking Water Quality. Drink Water Qual GB 5749:1–13
Census of India (2020) Population projections for India and States 2011–2036, National Commission on Population Ministry of Health and Family Welfare India 1–270
Chaib E, Moschandreas D (2006) Modeling spatial variation of brominates trihalomethanes in a water distribution system Ontario. Canada Environ Sci Health Part A 40:2447–2464
Chang EE, Guo HC, Li IS, Chiang PC, Huang CP (2010a) Modeling the formation and assessing the risk of disinfection by-products in water distribution systems. Environ Sci Health Part A 45:1185–1194
Chang HH, Tung HH, Chao CC, Wang GS (2010b) Occurrence of haloacetic acids (HAAs) and trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water of Taiwan. Environ Monit Assess 162:237–250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-0792-1
Charisiadis P, Andra SS, Makris KC, Christophi CA, Skarlatos D, Vamvakousis V, Kargaki S, Stephanou EG (2015) Spatial and seasonal variability of tap water disinfection by-products within distribution pipe networks. Sci Total Environ 506–507:26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.10.071
Chowdhury S (2013) Exposure assessment for trihalomethanes in municipal drinking water and risk reduction strategy. Sci Total Environ 463–464:922–930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.06.104
Chowdhury S, Champagne P, McLellan PJ (2009) Models for predicting disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation in drinking waters: a chronological review. Sci Total Environ 407:4189–4206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.04.006
Chowdhury S, Rodriguez MJ, Sadiq R (2011) Disinfection byproducts in Canadian provinces: associated cancer risks and medical expenses. J Hazard Mater 187:574–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.01.085
Chu WH, Gao NY, Deng Y, Krasner SW (2010) Precursors of dichloroacetamide, an emerging nitrogenous DBP formed during chlorination or chloramination. Environ Sci Technol 44:3908–3912. https://doi.org/10.1021/es100397x
Dat ND, Chau VNM, Tran ATK (2023) Temporal and spatial distribution of disinfection byproducts in drinking water supplied to the mega city of vietnam and assessment of the associated risks. Expo Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-023-00542-3
Delpla I, Florea M, Pelletier G, Rodriguez MJ (2018) Optimizing disinfection by-product monitoring points in a distribution system using cluster analysis. Chemosphere 208:512–521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.06.009
DeMarini DM (2021) A review on the 40th anniversary of the first regulation of drinking water disinfection by-products. Environ Mol Mutagen 61(6):1–26. https://doi.org/10.1002/em.22378.A
Domínguez-Tello A, Arias-Borrego A, García-Barrera T, Gómez-Ariza JL (2015) Seasonal and spatial evolution of trihalomethanes in a drinking water distribution system according to the treatment process. Environ Monit Assess 189:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4885-8
Dong F, Pang Z, Yu J, Deng J, Li X, Ma X, Dietrich AM, Deng Y (2022) Spatio-temporal variability of halogenated disinfection by-products in a large-scale two-source water distribution system with enhanced chlorination. J Hazard Mater 423:127113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127113
Du Y, Zhao L, Ban J, Zhu J, Wang S, Zhu X, Zhang Y, Huang Z, Li T (2021) Cumulative health risk assessment of disinfection by-products in drinking water by different disinfection methods in typical regions of China. Sci Total Environ 770:144662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144662
Elshorbagy WE, Abu Qdais H, Elsheamy MK (2000) Simulation of THM species in water distribution systems. Water Res 34:3431–3439. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(00)00231-1
EUDWD (2019) Drinking water directive. Counc EU 2019:1–124
Feungpean M, Panyapinyopol B, Elefsiniotis P, Fongsatitkul P (2015) Development of statistical models for trihalomethane (THM) occurrence in a water distribution network in Central Thailand. Urban Water J 12:275–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2013.871042
Font-Ribera L, Gràcia-Lavedan E, Aragonés N, Pérez-Gómez B, Pollán M, Amiano P, Jiménez-Zabala A, Castaño-Vinyals G, Roca-Barceló A, Ardanaz E, Burgui R, Molina AJ, Fernández-Villa T, Gómez-Acebo I, Dierssen-Sotos T, Moreno V, Fernandez-Tardon G, Peiró R, Kogevinas M, Villanueva CM (2018) Long-term exposure to trihalomethanes in drinking water and breast cancer in the Spanish multicase-control study on cancer (MCC-SPAIN). Environ Int 112:227–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.12.031
Fooladvand M, Ramavandi B, Zandi K, Ardestani M (2011) Investigation of trihalomethanes formation potential in Karoon River water. Iran Environ Monit Assess 178:63–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1672-4
Gallard H, Von Gunten U (2002) Chlorination of natural organic matter: Kinetics of chlorination and of THM formation. Water Res 36:65–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(01)00187-7
Grenoble Z, Zhang CC, Ahmed S, Jeffcoat SB, Karanfil T, Selbes M, Kaplan SS, Begum S, Ahmad R (2007) Physico-chemical processes. Water Environ Res 79:1228–1296. https://doi.org/10.2175/106143007X218395
Guilherme S, Rodriguez MJ (2014) Occurrence of regulated and non-regulated disinfection by-products in small drinking water systems. Chemosphere 117:425–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.08.002
Guilherme S, Rodriguez MJ (2015) Short-term spatial and temporal variability of disinfection by-product occurrence in small drinking water systems. Sci Total Environ 518–519:280–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.069
Haddad M, Mcneil L, Omar N (2014) Model for predicting disinfection by-product (DBP) formation and occurrence in intermittent water supply systems: palestine as a case study. Arab J Sci Eng 39:5883–5893. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-014-1200-x
IS:10500 (2012) DRINKING WATER—SPECIFICATION (Second Revision) IS 10500 (2012): drinking water. Bur India Stand 25:1–18
Jones RR, DellaValle CT, Weyer PJ, Robien K, Cantor KP, Krasner S, Beane Freeman LE, Ward MH (2019) Ingested nitrate, disinfection by-products, and risk of colon and rectal cancers in the iowa women’s health study cohort. Environ Int 126:242–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.02.010
Kalankesh LR, Zazouli MA, Susanto H, Babanezhad E (2021) Variability of TOC and DBPs (THMs and HAA5) in drinking water sources and distribution system in drought season: the North Iran case study. Environ Technol (united Kingdom) 42:100–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2019.1621952
Kimura SY, Cuthbertson AA, Byer JD, Richardson SD (2019) The DBP exposome: development of a new method to simultaneously quantify priority disinfection by-products and comprehensively identify unknowns. Water Res 148:324–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.10.057
Krasner SW (2009) The formation and control of emerging disinfection by-products of health concern. Philos Trans R Soc A Math Phys Eng Sci 367:4077–4095. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2009.0108
Kumar S, Forand S, Babcock G, Hwang SA (2014) Total trihalomethanes in public drinking water supply and birth outcomes: a cross-sectional study. Matern Child Health J 18:996–1006. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-013-1328-4
Kumari M, Gupta SK (2015) Modeling of trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water supplies: a case study of eastern part of India. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:12615–12623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4553-0
Leavey-Roback SL, Sugar CA, Krasner SW, Suffet IHM (2016) NDMA formation during drinking water treatment: a multivariate analysis of factors influencing formation. Water Res 95:300–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.02.060
Lee J, Kim ES, Roh BS, Eom SW, Zoh KD (2013) Occurrence of disinfection by-products in tap water distribution systems and their associated health risk. Environ Monit Assess 185:7675–7691. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3127-1
Legay C, Rodriguez MJ, Miranda-Moreno L, Sérodes JB, Levallois P (2011) Multi-level modelling of chlorination by-product presence in drinking water distribution systems for human exposure assessment purposes. Environ Monit Assess 178:507–524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1709-8
Li C, Wang D, Xu X, Wang Z (2017) Formation of known and unknown disinfection by-products from natural organic matter fractions during chlorination, chloramination, and ozonation. Sci Total Environ 587–588:177–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.108
Li J, Zhang Z, Aziz MT, Granger CO, Qiang Z, Richardson SD, Dong H (2023) Simple and sensitive method for synchronous quantification of regulated and unregulated priority disinfection byproducts in drinking water. Anal Chem 95:10975–10983. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.3c01013
Linge KL, Kristiana I, Liew D, Nottle CE, Heitz A, Joll CA (2017) Formation of n-nitrosamines in drinking water sources: case studies from Western Australia. J Am Water Works Assoc. https://doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2017.109.0036
Liu J, Lujan H, Dhungana B, Hockaday WC, Sayes CM, Cobb GP, Sharma VK (2020) Ferrate(VI) pretreatment before disinfection: An effective approach to controlling unsaturated and aromatic halo-disinfection byproducts in chlorinated and chloraminated drinking waters. Environ Int 138:105641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105641
Liu H, Zhang X, Fang Y, Fu C, Chen Z (2021) Trade-off control of organic matter and disinfection by-products in the drinking water treatment chain: role of pre-ozonation. Sci Total Environ 770:144767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144767
Liu T, Zhang M, Wen D, Fu Y, Yao J, Shao G, Peng Z (2023) Temporal and spatial variations of disinfection by-products in South Taihu’s drinking water, Zhejiang Province. China J Water Health 21:1504–1517. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2023.149
Luo Y, Feng L, Liu Y, Zhang L (2020) Disinfection by-products formation and acute toxicity variation of hospital wastewater under different disinfection processes. Sep Purif Technol 238:116405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2019.116405
Matilainen A, Vepsäläinen M, Sillanpää M (2010) Natural organic matter removal by coagulation during drinking water treatment: a review. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 159:189–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2010.06.007
Mazhar MA, Khan NA, Ahmed S, Khan AH, Hussain A, Rahisuddin, Changani F, Yousefi M, Ahmadi S, Vambol V (2020) Chlorination disinfection by-products in municipal drinking water: a review. J Clean Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123159
Mazhar MA, Ahmed S, Husain A, Rahisuddi, (2022) Monitoring of trihalomethanes and its cancer risk assessment in drinking water of Delhi City India. Pollution 8:830–843. https://doi.org/10.22059/POLL.2022.334618.1267
Mercier Shanks C, Sérodes JB, Rodriguez MJ (2013) Spatio-temporal variability of non-regulated disinfection by-products within a drinking water distribution network. Water Res 47:3231–3243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.03.033
Mishaqa ESI, Radwan EK, Ibrahim MBM, Hegazy TA, Ibrahim MS (2022) Multi-exposure human health risks assessment of trihalomethanes in drinking water of Egypt. Environ Res 207:2009–2012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112643
Nshemereirwe A, Zewge F, Malambala E (2022) Evaluation of formation and health risks of disinfection by-products in drinking water supply of Ggaba waterworks, Kampala Uganda. J Water Health 20:560–574. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2022.272
O’Driscoll C, Sheahan J, Renou-Wilson F, Croot P, Pilla F, Misstear B, Xiao L (2018) National scale assessment of total trihalomethanes in Irish drinking water. J Environ Manag 212:131–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.01.070
Pan S, An W, Li H, Su M, Zhang J, Yang M (2014) Cancer risk assessment on trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids in drinking water of China using disability-adjusted life years. J Hazard Mater 280:288–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.07.080
Pang Z, Zhang P, Chen X, Dong F, Deng J, Li C, Liu J, Ma X, Dietrich AM (2022) Occurrence and modeling of disinfection byproducts in distributed water of a megacity in China: implications for human health. Sci Total Environ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157674
Parveen N, Chowdhury S, Goel S (2023) Probabilistic approach for health hazard assessment of trihalomethanes through successive showering events. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:24793–24803. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17087-0
Pieri P, Andra SS, Charisiadis P, Demetriou G, Zambakides N, Makris KC (2014) Variability of tap water residual chlorine and microbial counts at spatially resolved points of use. Environ Eng Sci 31:193–201. https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2013.0480
Quist AJL, Inoue-Choi M, Weyer PJ, Anderson KE, Cantor KP, Krasner S, Freeman LEB, Ward MH, Jones RR (2018) Ingested nitrate and nitrite, disinfection by-products, and pancreatic cancer risk in postmenopausal women. Int J Cancer 142:251–261. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.31055
Rahman MB, Cowie C, Driscoll T, Summerhayes RJ, Armstrong BK, Clements MS (2014) Colon and rectal cancer incidence and water trihalomethane concentrations in New South Wales, Australia. BMC Cancer 14:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-14-445
Ramírez Á, de la Morena A, Sánchez N, Peñuela L, Sánchez-Carretero A, Muñoz M, Llanos J (2023) Formation of disinfection by-products within the drinking water production system and distribution network of a real case study. Appl Water Sci 13:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-023-01974-7
Redondo-Hasselerharm PE, Cserbik D, Flores C, Farré MJ, Sanchís J, Alcolea JA, Planas C, Caixach J, Villanueva CM (2022) Insights to estimate exposure to regulated and non-regulated disinfection by-products in drinking water. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-022-00453-6
Reyad AM, Shahat MMA, Syed MI (2021) The bacteria and the tirhalomethanes in drinking water distribution system in jazan region. Polish J Environ Stud. 30:5711–5722. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/135755
Richardson SD, Postigo C (2015) Formation of DBPs: state of the science. ACS Symp Ser 1190:189–214. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2015-1190.ch011
Richardson SD, Postigo C (2016) Discovery of new emerging DBPs by high-resolution mass spectrometry. Comprehensive analytical chemistry. Elsevier, Amsterdam. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.coac.2016.01.008
Richardson SD, Thruston AD, Rav-Acha C, Groisman L, Popilevsky I, Juraev O, Glezer V, McKAgue AB, Plewa MJ, Wagner ED (2003) Tribromopyrrole, brominated acids, and other disinfection byproducts produced by disinfection of drinking water rich in bromide. Environ Sci Technol 37:3782–3793. https://doi.org/10.1021/es030339w
Rodriguez MJ, Sérodes JB (2001) Spatial and temporal evolution of trihalomethanes in three water distribution systems. Water Res 35:1572–1586. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(00)00403-6
Rook JJ (1974) Formation of haloforms during chlorination of natural waters. Water Treat Exam 23:234–243
Sadeghi H, Nasseri S, Yunesian M, Mahvi AH, Nabizadeh R, Alimohammadi M (2019) Trihalomethanes in urban drinking water: Measuring exposures and assessing carcinogenic risk. J Environ Health Sci Eng 17:619–632. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40201-019-00374-x
Scheili A, Rodriguez MJ, Sadiq R (2015) Seasonal and spatial variations of source and drinking water quality in small municipal systems of two Canadian regions. Sci Total Environ 508:514–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.11.069
Selvam R, Muniraj S, Duraisamy T, Muthunarayanan V (2018) Identification of disinfection by-products (DBPs) halo phenols in drinking water. Appl Water Sci 8:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0771-1
Serrano M, Montesinos I, Cardador MJ, Silva M, Gallego M (2015) Seasonal evaluation of the presence of 46 disinfection by-products throughout a drinking water treatment plant. Sci Total Environ 517:246–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.070
Shah AD, Mitch WA (2012) Halonitroalkanes, halonitriles, haloamides, and N-nitrosamines: a critical review of nitrogenous disinfection byproduct formation pathways. Environ Sci Technol 46:119–131. https://doi.org/10.1021/es203312s
States S, Cyprych G, Stoner M, Wydra F, Kuchta J, Monnell J, Casson L (2013) Marcellus shale drilling and brominated THMs in pittsburgh, pa., drinking water. J Am Water Works Assoc 105:432–448. https://doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2013.105.0093
Tafesse N, Porcelli M, Hirpessa BB, Gasana J, Padhi RK, Garie SR, Ambelu A (2023) Exposure and carcinogenic risk assessment of trihalomethanes (THMs) for water supply consumers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Toxicol Rep 10:261–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2023.02.004
USEPA (2018) Edition of the drinking water standards and health advisories tables. Water Supply 25:1205–1241
USEPA (1995) Method 551.1: Determination of chlorination disinfection byproducts, chlorinated solvents , and halogenated pesticides/herbicides in drinking water by liquid-liquid extraction and gas chromatography with electron-capture detection. Environ. Prot. 1–61
Uyak V, Soylu S, Topal T, Karapinar N, Ozdemir K, Ozaydin S, Avsar E (2014) Spatial and seasonal variations of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in drinking water distribution systems of Istanbul City,Turkey. Environ Forensics 15:190–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/15275922.2014.890145
Valdivia-Garcia M, Weir P, Frogbrook Z, Graham DW, Werner D (2016) Climatic, geographic and operational determinants of trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water systems. Sci Rep 6:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep35027
Wang Y, Small MJ, VanBriesen JM (2017) Assessing the risk associated with increasing bromide in drinking water sources in the monongahela river,Pennsylvania. J Environ Eng 143:04016089. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)ee.1943-7870.0001175
WHO (2018) Typhoid vaccine: WHO position paper - March 2018. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 13:153–172
WHO, 2017. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, Fourth Edition Incorporating the First Addendum, Fourth Inc. ed.
Won G, Kline TR, LeJeune JT (2013) Spatial-temporal variations of microbial water quality in surface reservoirs and canals used for irrigation. Agric Water Manag 116:73–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2012.10.007
Yang X, Guo W, Zhang X, Chen F, Ye T, Liu W (2013) Formation of disinfection by-products after pre-oxidation with chlorine dioxide or ferrate. Water Res 47:5856–5864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.07.010
Zamyadi A, Ho L, Newcombe G, Bustamante H, Prévost M (2012) Fate of toxic cyanobacterial cells and disinfection by-products formation after chlorination. Water Res 46:1524–1535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.06.029
Zhai H, Zhang X, Zhu X, Liu J, Ji M (2014) Formation of brominated disinfection byproducts during chloramination of drinking water: New polar species and overall kinetics. Environ Sci Technol 48:2579–2588. https://doi.org/10.1021/es4034765
Zhang SH, Miao DY, Liu AL, Zhang L, Wei W, Xie H, Lu WQ (2010) Assessment of the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of haloacetic acids using microplate-based cytotoxicity test and CHO/HGPRT gene mutation assay. Mutat Res - Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 703:174–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2010.08.014
Zhou X, Zheng L, Chen S, Du H, Gakoko Raphael BM, Song Q, Wu F, Chen J, Lin H, Hong H (2019) Factors influencing DBPs occurrence in tap water of Jinhua Region in Zhejiang Province. China Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 171:813–822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.12.106
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge and express there thanks to the administration of Jamia Millia Islamia and are highly thankful for providing the research facilities used in this work.
Funding
The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received for conducting this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Mohd. Aamir Mazhar: Investigation, Data Curation, Writing Original Draft, Sirajuddin Ahmed: Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources, Writing Review and Editing, Geeta Singh: Project Administration, Writing Review and Editing, Azhar Husain: Supervision, Writing Review and Editing, Rahisuddin: Formal Analysis, Visualization, Writing Review and Editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relations hips that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent to publish
Not applicable.
Additional information
Editorial responsibility: S. Mirkia.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Mazhar, M.A., Ahmed, S., Singh, G. et al. Trihalomethanes monitoring and their seasonal variation in urban municipal water supply system in North India. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-05702-9
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-05702-9