Abstract
This study aimed to explore the challenges posed by air pollution near cement industry and the potential health impacts on residents. To address health risk associated with air pollution, a unique blend of environmental strategies was introduced by implementing measures such as increasing stack heights, planting trees known for particulate absorption, and promoting the use of protective masks. These interventions were strategically guided by dynamic modeling system implemented through STELLA software. The model predicted that the most efficient combination of treatments would take approximately 240 months to significantly reduce metal concentrations and associated carcinogenic risk for the nearest population. In scenarios where stack heights were increased by 60 m and 90 m, the effectiveness in lowering average metal concentration was 5.38% and 24.07%, respectively. Similarly, when 2550 and 3900 were trees planted, the effectiveness in reducing average metal concentration was 2.33% and 24.12%, respectively. The use of cloth masks led to a reduction in carcinogenic risk of 36.90% for adults and 36.93% for children. Meanwhile, the use of disposable masks led to a significant reduction of 96.30% for adults and 78.93% for children. The most effective approach for reducing airborne metal exposure was found to be the use of a multi-sectoral method that applied a combined optimistic scenario. The results provided valuable information on the understanding of the local-scale prediction of health hazards associated with metal exposure in ambient air.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All the data that support the results of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
References
Abril GA, Wannaz ED, Mateos AC et al (2014) Biomonitoring of airborne particulate matter emitted from a cement plant and comparison with dispersion modelling results. Atmos Environ 82:154–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.10.020
Ahmed M, Bashar I, Alam ST et al (2021) An overview of Asian cement industry: Environmental impacts, research methodologies and mitigation measures. Sustain Prod Consum 28:1018–1039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2021.07.024
Al-Hemoud A, Gasana J, Al-Dabbous AN, et al (2018) Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) in Terms of Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to premature adult mortalities and postneonatal infant mortalities attributed to PM2.5 and PM10 exposures in Kuwait. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15:2609. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112609
Ameh T, Sayes CM (2019) The potential exposure and hazards of copper nanoparticles: a review. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 71:103220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2019.103220
Anwar FS, Mallongi A, Maidin MA (2019) Kualitas udara ambien CO dan TSP di permukiman sekitar kawasan industri PT. Semen Tonasa. J Kesehat Masy Marit 2:1. https://doi.org/10.30597/jkmm.v2i1.10060
Arfin T, Mathew N, Tirpude A et al (2023a) Emerging contaminants in air pollution and their sources, consequences, and future challenges. In: Thapar Kapoor R, Rafatullah M (eds) Bioremediation technologies. De Gruyter, Berlin, pp 235–274. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111016825-014
Arfin T, Pillai AM, Mathew N et al (2023b) An overview of atmospheric aerosol and their effects on human health. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:125347–125369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-29652-w
ATSDR (2022) Calculating hazard quotients and cancer risk estimates. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pha-guidance/conducting_scientific_evaluations/epcs_and_exposure_calculations/hazardquotients_cancerrisk.html. Cited 19 Feb 2024
Barry KM, Irianto RSB, Santoso E et al (2004) Incidence of heartrot in harvest-age Acacia mangium in Indonesia, using a rapid survey method. For Ecol Manag 190:273–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2003.10.017
Bharti SK, Trivedi A, Kumar N (2018) Air pollution tolerance index of plants growing near an industrial site. Urban Clim 24:820–829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2017.10.007
Briffa J, Sinagra E, Blundell R (2020) Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans. Heliyon 6:e04691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04691
Brusca S, Famoso F, Lanzafame R et al (2016) Theoretical and experimental study of Gaussian plume model in small scale system. Energy Procedia 101:58–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2016.11.008
Cherrie JW, Apsley A, Cowie H et al (2018) Effectiveness of face masks used to protect Beijing residents against particulate air pollution. Occup Environ Med 75:446–452. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2017-104765
Cooper KL, Liu R, Zhou X (2022) Particulate arsenic trioxide induces higher DNA damage and reactive oxygen species than soluble arsenite in lung epithelial cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 457:116320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2022.116320
Cui Y, Bai L, Li C et al (2022) Assessment of heavy metal contamination levels and health risks in environmental media in the northeast region. Sustain Cities Soc 80:103796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.103796
Cutillas-Barreiro L, Pérez-Rodríguez P, Gómez-Armesto A et al (2016) Lithological and land-use based assessment of heavy metal pollution in soils surrounding a cement plant in SW Europe. Sci Total Environ 562:179–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.198
De Castro LZ, Da Silva TRB, Ronchi SN et al (2020) Mangifera indica L. as airborne metal biomonitor for regions of the State of Espírito Santo (Brazil). Water Air Soil Pollut 231:74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-020-4433-1
Di Nicola F, Brattich E, Di Sabatino S (2022) A new approach for roughness representation within urban dispersion models. Atmos Environ 283:119181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2022.119181
FAO (2002) Tropical forest plantation areas 1995 data set by D. Pandey. Forest Resources Development Service. FAO, Rome
Gladović A, Petrović B, Vukelić D et al (2023) Carcinogenic and human health risk assessment of children’s and adults’ exposure to toxic metal(oid)s from air PM10 in critical sites of the Republic of Serbia. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:61753–61765. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26375-w
Greiner R, Puig J, Huchery C et al (2014) Scenario modelling to support industry strategic planning and decision making. Environ Model Softw 55:120–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2014.01.011
Gupta RK, Majumdar D, Trivedi JV et al (2012) Particulate matter and elemental emissions from a cement kiln. Fuel Process Technol 104:343–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2012.06.007
Hagagg K, Nasar N, Ramadan AB (2020) Assessment of radiation hazards and total suspended particulate of cement Industry, Egypt. Eur Acad Res 7:4201–4218
Hien TT, Chi NDT, Huy DH et al (2022) Soluble trace metals associated with atmospheric fine particulate matter in the two most populous cities in Vietnam. Atmos Environ X 15:100178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeaoa.2022.100178
Hwang S, Kim SY, Choi S et al (2021) Correlation between levels of airborne endotoxin and heavy metals in subway environments in South Korea. Sci Rep 11:17086. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-95860-4
Jamil S, Abhilash PC, Singh A et al (2009) Fly ash trapping and metal accumulating capacity of plants: Implication for green belt around thermal power plants. Landsc Urban Plan 92:136–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2009.04.002
Jandacka D, Durcanska D, Bujdos M (2017) The contribution of road traffic to particulate matter and metals in air pollution in the vicinity of an urban road. Transp Res Part Transp Environ 50:397–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2016.11.024
Ji W, Li X, Wang C (2021) Composition and exposure characteristics of PM2.5 on subway platforms and estimates of exposure reduction by protective masks. Environ Res 197:111042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.111042
Jiang T, Jiang D, You D et al (2020) Agonism of GPR120 prevents ox-LDL-induced attachment of monocytes to endothelial cells. Chem Biol Interact 316:108916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2019.108916
Kodros JK, O’Dell K, Samet JM et al (2021) Quantifying the health benefits of face masks and respirators to mitigate exposure to severe air pollution. GeoHealth 5:e2021GH000482. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GH000482
Kotir JH, Smith C, Brown G et al (2016) A system dynamics simulation model for sustainable water resources management and agricultural development in the Volta River Basin, Ghana. Sci Total Environ 573:444–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.081
Kress S, Wigmann C, Zhao Q et al (2022) Airway inflammation in adolescents and elderly women: chronic air pollution exposure and polygenic susceptibility. Respir Res 23:265. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-022-02179-3
Kumar M, Saurabh V, Tomar M et al (2021) Mango (Mangifera indica L.) leaves: nutritional composition, phytochemical profile, and health-promoting bioactivities. Antioxidants 10:299. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10020299
Kwong LH, Wilson R, Kumar S et al (2021) Review of the breathability and filtration efficiency of common household materials for face masks. ACS Nano 15:5904–5924. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c10146
Laiman V, Lo YC, Chen HC et al (2022) Effects of antibiotics and metals on lung and intestinal microbiome dysbiosis after sub-chronic lower-level exposure of air pollution in ageing rats. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 246:114164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114164
Laniyan TA, Adewumi AJ (2020) Evaluation of contamination and ecological risk of heavy metals associated with cement production in Ewekoro, Southwest Nigeria. J Health Pollut 10:200306. https://doi.org/10.5696/2156-9614-10.25.200306
Leelőssy Á, Molnár F, Izsák F et al (2014) Dispersion modeling of air pollutants in the atmosphere: a review. Open Geosci 6:3. https://doi.org/10.2478/s13533-012-0188-6
Mainka A, Fantke P (2022) Preschool children health impacts from indoor exposure to PM2.5 and metals. Environ Int 160:107062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.107062
Mallongi A, Astuti RDP, Amiruddin R et al (2022) Identification source and human health risk assessment of potentially toxic metal in soil samples around karst watershed of Pangkajene, Indonesia. Environ Nanotechnol Monit Manag 17:100634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2021.100634
Manjare SD, Donolikar Y (2022) Effect of atmospheric and operational variables on dispersion of bauxite particulates at Mormugaon Port, Goa, India. Mater Today Proc 67:1190–1196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.08.142
Meena M, Meena BS, Chandrawat U et al (2016) Seasonal variation of selected metals in particulate matter at an industrial city Kota, India. Aerosol Air Qual Res 16:990–999. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2015.02.0074
EAST-LAB University of Michigan (2001) Central campus air quality model (CCAQM) instructions. https://public.websites.umich.edu/~weberg/coordinates.htm. Cited 19 Feb 2024
Moniruzzaman M, Shaikh MAA, Saha B et al (2022) Seasonal changes and respiratory deposition flux of PM2.5 and PM10 bound metals in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Chemosphere 309:136794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136794
Mueller W, Horwell CJ, Apsley A et al (2018) The effectiveness of respiratory protection worn by communities to protect from volcanic ash inhalation. Part I: filtration efficiency tests. Int J Hyg Environ Health 221:967–976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.03.012
Muñoz AA, Klock-Barría K, Sheppard PR et al (2019) Multidecadal environmental pollution in a mega-industrial area in central Chile registered by tree rings. Sci Total Environ 696:133915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133915
Najafpoor AA, Hosseinzadeh A, Allahyari S et al (2014) Modeling of CO and NOx produced by vehicles in Mashhad, 2012. Environ Health Eng Manag J 1:1
Ngo HTT, Watchalayann P, Nguyen DB et al (2021) Evaluation of heavy metal exposure pathways on children from an informal e-waste processing village in Viet Nam. Hum Ecol Risk Assess Int J 27:2342–2358. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2021.2000362
Ogbonna C, Nwosu AN (2011) Metal concentration in soil and plants in abandoned cement factory. International Conference on Biotechnology and Environment Management (IPCBEE)
Panjaitan TWS, Dargusch P, Wadley D et al (2021) Meeting international standards of cleaner production in developing countries: challenges and financial realities facing the Indonesian cement industry. J Clean Prod 318:128604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128604
Patel KS, Sharma R, Dahariya NS et al (2015) Heavy metal contamination of tree leaves. Am J Anal Chem 6:687–693. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajac.2015.68066
Princewill CO, Adanma NN (2011) Metal concentration in soil and plants in abandoned cement factory. In: International conference on biotechnology and environment management, vol 18. Singapore, pp 146–150
Putman AL, Jones DK, Blakowski MA et al (2022) Industrial particulate pollution and historical land use contribute metals of concern to dust deposited in neighborhoods along the Wasatch Front, UT, USA. GeoHealth 6:e2022GH000671. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GH000671
Rauf AU, Mallongi A, Daud A et al (2021) Community health risk assessment of total suspended particulates near a cement plant in Maros Regency, Indonesia. J Health Pollut 11:210616. https://doi.org/10.5696/2156-9614-11.30.210616
Ren X, Tian Y, Xin J et al (2022) Meteorological and chemical causes of heavy pollution in winter in Hohhot, Inner Mongolia Plateau. Atmos Res 275:106243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2022.106243
Roy A, Bhattacharya T, Kumari M (2020) Air pollution tolerance, metal accumulation and dust capturing capacity of common tropical trees in commercial and industrial sites. Sci Total Environ 722:137622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137622
Sagala G, Kristatnto GA, Kusuma MA et al (2018) Assessment of municipal solid waste as refuse derived fuel in the cement industry. Int J Adv Sci Eng Inf Techno 8:1062–1070. https://doi.org/10.18517/ijaseit.8.4.3469
Sengupta S (2011) Heavy metal contamination in leaves of Mangifera indica around a coal fired thermal power plant in India. J Ecol Nat Environ 3:14. https://doi.org/10.5897/JENE11.037
Shamsollahi HR, Kharrazi S, Jahanbin B et al (2021) Development of a new method for isolation of urban air particulates deposited in the human lung tissue. Chemosphere 280:130585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130585
Susihono W, Gede Adiatmika IP (2020) Assessment of inhaled dust by workers and suspended dust for pollution control change and ergonomic intervention in metal casting industry: a cross-sectional study. Heliyon 6:e04067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04067
Theopilus Y, Yogasara T, Theresia C et al (2020) Analisis risiko produk alat pelindung diri (APD) pencegah penularan COVID-19 untuk pekerja informal di Indonesia. J Rekayasa Sist Ind 9:115–134. https://doi.org/10.26593/jrsi.v9i2.4002.115-134
Tiwari A, Kumar P, Baldauf R et al (2019) Considerations for evaluating green infrastructure impacts in microscale and macroscale air pollution dispersion models. Sci Total Environ 672:410–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.350
Uket NOS, Bate GB (2020) Heavy metals concentration in mango (Mangifera indica L.) grown around some gold mining areas of Zamfara State, Nigeria. J Appl Life Sci Int 29:35. https://doi.org/10.9734/jalsi/2020/v23i530163
USEPA (2011) Exposure factors handbook: 2011 edition. EPA/600/R-090/052F. 1–1466
Van Der Hoven I (1975) Effects of time and height on behavior of emissions. Environ Health Perspect 10:207–210. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7510207
Wollff I (2023) Coal resources, production, and use in Indonesia. In: The coal handbook. Elsevier, pp 361–430. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824327-5.00008-9
Xu J, Xiao X, Zhang W et al (2020) Air-filtering masks for respiratory protection from PM2.5 and pandemic pathogens. One Earth 3:574–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.10.014
Yadav A, Sahu PK, Patel KS et al (2020) Assessment of arsenic and heavy metal pollution in Chhattisgarh, India. J Hazard Toxic Radioact Waste 24:05019008. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000478
Zhang L, Fang B, Wang H et al (2023) The role of systemic inflammation and oxidative stress in the association of particulate air pollution metal content and early cardiovascular damage: a panel study in healthy college students. Environ Pollut 323:121345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121345
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Zulfikar Idris, S.Si., MM for his contribution during the data collection. He may no longer be able to read this published paper, but his spirit and soul are always with us.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors have participated and have approved the final article to publish. AUR contributed to the conceptualization, data analysis, and writing—original draft and editing; AM was involved in the conceptualization and supervising; MH assisted in the data analysis and data curation; RDPA contributed to the data analysis, data interpretation, and editing the draft; and TGM was involved in the data collecting and reviewing the draft.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Ethical approval
The Hasanuddin University Health Research Ethics Commission approved this study under protocol No. 28920093022.
Additional information
Editorial responsibility: Nabin Aryal.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Rauf, A.U., Mallongi, A., Hatta, M. et al. Integrating dynamic modeling into health risk analysis to reduce the exposure of potentially hazardous elements. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-05537-4
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-05537-4