Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Comprehensive investigation of the durability and mechanical properties of eco-friendly geopolymer concrete (alkali-activated)

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Today, concrete is the most widely used building material. Cement production releases about 7% of carbon dioxide gas into the atmosphere and increases greenhouse gases, so it seems necessary to use an alternative to Portland cement. In recent years, geopolymers have been considered a suitable and environmentally friendly alternative to conventional Portland cement. Geopolymer concrete can be made from different sources of alumina silicate. The main goal of this experimental research is to improve the properties of physical resistance and durability of geopolymer concrete, such as carbonation, chloride ion penetration and water absorption, in order to produce sustainable materials and replace ordinary cement. It has been determined that with the concentration of the alkaline solution of 12 M and the curing temperature of 90 degrees Celsius, the properties of mechanical resistance, impact resistance (energy absorption) and durability of geopolymer concrete are improved. Also, the results show that if alkaline solutions are combined, the sample containing 80% NaOH and 20% KOH has better mechanical properties, durability and higher modulus of elasticity than other cases. Also, in terms of the correlation matrix of the modulus of elasticity (percentage of compliance with the common concrete regulations), the best results are related to the T-N80K20 mixing design with concentrations of 8 and 12 M and at curing temperature of 90 degrees Celsius with the CEB regulations, and at a curing temperature of 25 °C was obtained according to ACI 365 and ACI 318 regulations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16
Fig. 17
Fig. 18
Fig. 19
Fig. 20
Fig. 21
Fig. 22
Fig. 23

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • AC., Institute, AC. (1989). Building code requirements for reinforced concrete (ACI 318–89) and commentary--ACI 318R-89: American concrete institute.

  • Abdelmoamen M, Abdelsalam E (2020) Effect of potassium hydroxide and sodium silicate as an alkaline activator on the properties of GPC. Al-Azhar Uni Civ Eng Res Mag (CERM) 42(2):87–106

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad S (1998) ACI-544, Measurement of properties of fiber reinforced concrete. Mater J 85:45–65

    Google Scholar 

  • Aliabdo AA, Abd Elmoaty M, Emam MA (2019) Factors affecting the mechanical properties of alkali activated ground granulated blast furnace slag concrete. Constr Build Mater 197:339–355

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Amran M, Al-Fakih A, Chu S, Fediuk R, Haruna S, Azevedo A, Vatin N (2021) Long-term durability properties of geopolymer concrete: an in-depth review. Case Stud Constr Mater 15:e00661

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellum RR, Muniraj K, Madduru SRC (2020) Investigation on modulus of elasticity of fly ash-ground granulated blast furnace slag blended geopolymer concrete. Mater Today Proc 27:718–723

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • CA (2012). Standard test method for electrical indication of concrete’s ability to resist chloride ion penetration. Paper presented at the american society for testing and materials.

  • Chau-Khun M, Zawawi AA, Wahid O (2018) Structural and material performance of geopolymer concrete. Constr Build Mater 186:90–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen C, Zhang X, Hao H (2023) Investigation on the impact resistance of reinforced geopolymer concrete slab. J Clean Prod 406:137144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137144

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chindaprasirt P, Chalee W (2014) Effect of sodium hydroxide concentration on chloride penetration and steel corrosion of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete under marine site. Constr Build Mater 63:303–310

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Commitee RCP (1984) RILEM draft recommendation: measurement of hardened concrete carbonation depth CPC-18. Mater Struct 17(102):435–440

    Google Scholar 

  • Concrete, A. I. C. C. O., Aggregates, C (2017) Standard test method for splitting tensile strength of cylindrical concrete specimens1: ASTM international.

  • Concrete, F. I. B. I. F. S. (1990). High strength concrete joint FIP CEB state of the art report: FIB-international federation for structural concrete

  • Deepak AL, Lakshmi T (2020) Durability properties of geopolymer concrete with flyash and metakaolin. Int J Sci Technol Res 9:256–260

    Google Scholar 

  • Dineshkumar M, Umarani C (2020) Effect of alkali activator on the standard consistency and setting times of fly ash and GGBS-based sustainable geopolymer pastes. Adv Civ Eng 2020:1–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elyamany HE, Abd Elmoaty M, Elshaboury AM (2018) Setting time and 7-day strength of geopolymer mortar with various binders. Constr Build Mater 187:974–983

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EN, B. (2009). 12350–2. Testing fresh concrete. Slump-test. London: British standards institution.

  • Esparham A (2022a) A review of the features of geopolymer cementitious composites for use in green construction and sustainable urban development. Cent Asian J Environ Sci Technol Innov 3(3):64–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Esparham A (2022b) Synthesis of environmentally friendly activated alkali concrete (geopolymer) Based on bentonite. J Environ Friendly Mater 6(2):1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Esparham A, Ghalatian F (2022) The features of geopolymer concrete as a novel approach for utilization in green urban structures. J Compos Compd 4(11):89–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Esparham A, Moradikhou AB (2021a) Factors influencing compressive strength of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. Amirkabir J Civ Eng 53(3):21–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Esparham A, Moradikhou AB (2021b) A novel type of alkaline activator for geopolymer concrete based on class c fly ash. Adv Res Civ Eng 3(1):1–13. https://doi.org/10.30469/arce.2021.130143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esparham A, Moradikhou AB (2021c) A novel type of alkaline activator for geopolymer concrete based on metakaolin. J Civ Eng Mater Appl 5(2):14–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Esparham A, Moradikhou AB, Jamshidi Avanaki M (2020) Effect of various alkaline activator solutions on compressive strength of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. J Civ Eng Mater Appl 4(2):115–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Esparham A, Moradikhou AB, Mehrdadi N (2021) Introduction to synthesise method of Geopolymer concrete and corresponding properties. J Iran Ceram Soc 16(4):13–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Esparham A, Vatin NI, Kharun M, Hematibahar M (2023) A study of modern eco-friendly composite (geopolymer) based on blast furnace slag compared to conventional concrete using the life cycle assessment approach. Infrastructures 8(3):58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farooq F, Rahman SKU, Akbar A, Khushnood RA, Javed MF (2020) A comparative study on performance evaluation of hybrid GNPs/CNTs in conventional and self-compacting mortar. Alex Eng J 59(1):369–379

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • fur Normung, D. (1991). Testing concrete: Testing of Hardened concrete (Specimens prepared in mould) DIN 1048 Part 5 1991. In: Germany

  • Gunasekara C, Law DW, Setunge S (2016) Long term permeation properties of different fly ash geopolymer concretes. Constr Build Mater 124:352–362

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hardjito D, Rangan BV (2005) Development and properties of low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. Research Report GC 1; Faculty of Engineering Curtin University of Technology: Perth, Australia

  • Hasanzadeh A, Vatin NI, Hematibahar M, Kharun M, Shooshpasha I (2022) Prediction of the mechanical properties of basalt fiber reinforced high-performance concrete using machine learning techniques. Materials 15(20):7165

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hassan A, Arif M, Shariq M (2022) Age-dependent compressive strength and elastic modulus of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. Struct Concr 23(1):473–487

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang Q, Tao Z, Pan Z, Wuhrer R, Rahme M (2022) Use of sodium/potassium citrate to enhance strength development in carbonate-activated hybrid cement. Constr Build Mater 350:128913

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jafari Nadoushan M, Ramezanianpor A (2019) Mechanical properties of alkali activated slag pastes and determination of optimum values of effective factors. Amirkabir J Civ Eng 50(6):1043–1052

    Google Scholar 

  • Jan A, Pu Z, Khan KA, Ahmad I, Shaukat AJ, Hao Z, Khan I (2022) A review on the effect of silica to alumina ratio, alkaline solution to binder ratio, calcium oxide+ ferric oxide, molar concentration of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide ratio on the compressive strength of geopolymer concrete. SILICON 14(7):3147–3162

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jindal B, Singhal D, Sharma S, Jangra P (2018) Enhancing mechanical and durability properties of geopolymer concrete with mineral admixture. Comput Concr. https://doi.org/10.12989/cac.2018.21.3.000

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khan M, Castel A, Noushini A (2017) Carbonation of a low-calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete. Mag Concr Res 69(1):24–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar H, Prasad R, Srivastava A, Vashista M, Khan M (2018) Utilisation of industrial waste (fly ash) in synthesis of copper based surface composite through friction stir processing route for wear applications. J Clean Prod 196:460–468

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kushartomo W (2020) Mechanical properties of powder concrete with a geopolymer bond. Paper presented at the IOP conference series: materials science and engineering

  • Li W, Shumuye ED, Shiying T, Wang Z, Zerfu K (2022) Eco-friendly fibre reinforced geopolymer concrete: a critical review on the microstructure and long-term durability properties. Case Stud Constr Mater 16:e00894

    Google Scholar 

  • Lim YY, Pham TM (2021) Influence of Portland cement on performance of fine rice husk ash geopolymer concrete: strength and permeability properties. Constr Build Mater 300:124321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lokuge W, Wilson A, Gunasekara C, Law DW, Setunge S (2018) Design of fly ash geopolymer concrete mix proportions using multivariate adaptive regression spline model. Constr Build Mater 166:472–481

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meesala CR, Verma NK, Kumar S (2020) Critical review on fly-ash based geopolymer concrete. Struct Concr 21(3):1013–1028

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mehta A, Siddique R, Singh BP, Aggoun S, Łagód G, Barnat-Hunek D (2017) Influence of various parameters on strength and absorption properties of fly ash based geopolymer concrete designed by Taguchi method. Constr Build Mater 150:817–824

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mousavinejad SHG, Sammak M (2021) Strength and chloride ion penetration resistance of ultra-high-performance fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete. Elsevier, Structures, pp 1420–1427

    Google Scholar 

  • Nath P, Sarker PK (2017) Flexural strength and elastic modulus of ambient-cured blended low-calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete. Constr Build Mater 130:22–31

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen TT, Goodier CI, Austin SA (2020) Factors affecting the slump and strength development of geopolymer concrete. Constr Build Mater 261:119945

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nikvar-Hassani A, Manjarrez L, Zhang L (2022) Rheology, setting time, and compressive strength of class f fly ash-based geopolymer binder containing ordinary portland cement. J Mater Civ Eng 34(1):04021375

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noushini A, Castel A (2018) Performance-based criteria to assess the suitability of geopolymer concrete in marine environments using modified ASTM C1202 and ASTM C1556 methods. Mater Struct 51(6):146

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noushini A, Aslani F, Castel A, Gilbert RI, Uy B, Foster S (2016) Compressive stress-strain model for low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer and heat-cured Portland cement concrete. Cement Concr Compos 73:136–146

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olivia M, Sarker P, Nikraz H (2008) Water penetrability of low calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete. Proc ICCBT2008-A 46:517–53046

  • Ouyang X, Shi C, Wu Z, Li K, Shan B, Shi J (2020) Experimental investigation and prediction of elastic modulus of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) based on its composition. Cem Concr Res 138:106241

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pasupathy K, Sanjayan J, Rajeev P (2021) Evaluation of alkalinity changes and carbonation of geopolymer concrete exposed to wetting and drying. J Build Eng 35:102029

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phoo-ngernkham T, Maegawa A, Mishima N, Hatanaka S, Chindaprasirt P (2015) Effects of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate solutions on compressive and shear bond strengths of FA–GBFS geopolymer. Constr Build Mater 91:1–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quang Minh D, Bùi Thu H, Nguyen HT (2019) Effects of seawater content in alkaline activators to engineering properties of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. Solid State Phenom 296:105–111. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.296.105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman A, Majumder A (2013) Effects of missing value estimation methods in correlation matrix-a case study of concrete compressive strength data. Int J Adv Sci Technol 52(04):2013

    Google Scholar 

  • Ranjbar N, Kuenzel C, Spangenberg J, Mehrali M (2020) Hardening evolution of geopolymers from setting to equilibrium: a review. Cement Concr Compos 114:103729

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rehman SKU, Imtiaz L, Aslam F, Khan MK, Haseeb M, Javed MF, Alabduljabbar H (2020) Experimental investigation of NaOH and KOH mixture in SCBA-based geopolymer cement composite. Materials 13(15):3437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell HG, Anderson AR, Banning JO, Cantor IG, Carrasquillo RL, Cook JE, Aitcin PC (1997) State-of-the-art report on high-strength concrete. ACI Committee 363:92

    Google Scholar 

  • Saravanan S, Elavenil S (2018) Strength properties of geopolymer concrete using M sand by assessing their mechanical characteristics. ARPN J Eng Appl Sci 13(13):4028–4041

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shadnia R, Zhang L, Li P (2015) Experimental study of geopolymer mortar with incorporated PCM. Constr Build Mater 84:95–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shilar FA, Ganachari SV, Patil VB, Khan TY, Javed S, Baig RU (2022) Optimization of alkaline activator on the strength properties of geopolymer concrete. Polymers 14(12):2434

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sipos PM, Hefter G, May PM (2000) Viscosities and densities of highly concentrated aqueous MOH solutions (M+= Na+, K+, Li+, Cs+,(CH3) 4N+) at 2.50° C. J Chem Eng Data 45(4):613–617

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Standard B (1983) 116 Testing concrete-method for determination of compressive strength of concrete cubes. British standards institute, London, United Kingdom

    Google Scholar 

  • Standard A (2010) Standard test method for static modulus of elasticity and poisson’s ratio of concrete in compression. ASTM Stand. C, 469

  • Tennakoon C, San Nicolas R, Sanjayan JG, Shayan A (2016) Thermal effects of activators on the setting time and rate of workability loss of geopolymers. Ceram Int 42(16):19257–19268

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Testing A. S. F., Materials (2001a) ASTM C293, Standard test method for flexural strength of concrete (using simple beam with center-point loading)

  • Testing, A. S. F., Materials (2001b) ASTM C642: Standard test method for density, absorption, and voids in hardened concrete

  • Verma M, Dev N (2021) Sodium hydroxide effect on the mechanical properties of flyash-slag based geopolymer concrete. Struct Concr 22:E368–E379

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhuguo L, Sha L (2018) Carbonation resistance of fly ash and blast furnace slag based geopolymer concrete. Constr Build Mater 163:668–680

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We hereby express our gratitude and appreciation for the support of Mr. Shahram Esparham and Babak Esparham.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

    A. Esparham

  2. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

    S. Rezaei

Authors
  1. A. Esparham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. S. Rezaei
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to A. Esparham.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

I declare that I have no conflicts of Interest in this work. My research is independent and not influenced by external factors such as financial resources, personal or professional relationships, or political affiliations. I have acted with integrity and honesty in doing so. By researching and analyzing the results, I have strictly adhered to the principles of academic integrity and ethical behavior throughout this project.

Additional information

Editorial responsibility: Q. Aguilar-Virgen.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Esparham, A., Rezaei, S. Comprehensive investigation of the durability and mechanical properties of eco-friendly geopolymer concrete (alkali-activated). Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 21, 6615–6636 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-05499-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-05499-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation