Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Application of membrane bioreactor integrated with ultraviolet disinfection for simultaneous greywater treatment and SARS-CoV-2 removal

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

One of the innovative approaches to supplying water demands for irrigation and recreational purposes is the treatment and reuse of greywater. However, during the coronavirus pandemic, greywater has the potential to be polluted by SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, it is unsafe to reuse it during the peak of the COVID-19 outbreak. In this research, a membrane bioreactor combined with an ultraviolet disinfection system is applied to treat the greywater and remove the SARS-CoV-2 virus up to the required quality for irrigation or flush tank purposes. The results showed membrane bioreactor could remove 94.3 ± 1.2% of initial chemical oxygen demand and be partially successful in virus removal. Fifty percent of secondary treated effluent samples were still positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA. The results also illustrated that ultraviolet disinfection could reduce faecal and total coliform by more than 99% and eliminate the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The tertiary treated effluent biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and total coliform were 1.7 ± 0.2 mg/l, 18 ± 1.2 mg/l, and below 3 MPN/100 mL, respectively. Moreover, all of the samples of the tertiary treated effluent were negative for coronavirus RNA. Therefore, the tertiary treated effluent characteristic satisfied Iran’s standards for wastewater reuse in irrigation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdelkader AM (2021) Comparative study between membrane bioreactor MBR and rotating biological contactors RBC for greywater treatment. Int J Environ Sci Dev 12(4):107–111

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abu Ali H, Yaniv K, Bar-Zeev E, Chaudhury S, Shagan M, Lakkakula S, Ronen Z, Kushmaro A, Nir O (2021) Tracking SARS-CoV-2 RNA through the wastewater treatment process. ACS ES&T Water 1(5):1161–1167

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Hamaiedeh H, Bino M (2010) Effect of treated grey water reuse in irrigation on soil and plants. Desalination 256(1–3):115–119

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alsulaili AD, Hamoda MF, Al-Jarallah R, Alrukaibi D (2017) Treatment and potential reuse of greywater from schools: a pilot study. Water Sci Technol 75(9):2119–2129

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Balboa S, Mauricio-Iglesias M, Rodriguez S, Martínez-Lamas L, Vasallo FJ, Regueiro B, Lema JM (2021) The fate of SARS-COV-2 in WWTPS points out the sludge line as a suitable spot for detection of COVID-19. Sci Total Environ 772:145268

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell A, Robertson L, Snowball M, Smith H (1995) Inactivation of oocysts of cryptosporidium parvum by ultraviolet irradiation. Water Res 29(11):2583–2586

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chaudhry RM, Nelson KL, Drewes JRE (2015) Mechanisms of pathogenic virus removal in a full-scale membrane bioreactor. Environ Sci Technol 49(5):2815–2822

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dev Kumar G, Mishra A, Dunn L, Townsend A, Oguadinma IC, Bright KR, Gerba CP (2020) Biocides and novel antimicrobial agents for the mitigation of coronaviruses. Front Microbiol 11:1351

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson E, Auffarth K, Henze M, Ledin A (2002) Characteristics of grey wastewater. Urban Water 4(1):85–104

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foladori P, Cutrupi F, Segata N, Manara S, Pinto F, Malpei F, Bruni L, La Rosa G (2020) SARS-CoV-2 from faeces to wastewater treatment: what do we know? A Review Sci Total Environ 743:140444

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foladori P, Cutrupi F, Cadonna M, Manara S (2022) Coronaviruses and SARS-CoV-2 in sewerage and their removal: step by step in wastewater treatment plants. Environ Res 207:112204

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gundy PM, Gerba CP, Pepper IL (2009) Survival of coronaviruses in water and wastewater. Food Environ Virol 1(1):10–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huelgas A, Funamizu N (2010) Flat-plate submerged membrane bioreactor for the treatment of higher-load graywater. Desalination 250(1):162–166

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • James DTK, Ifelebuegu AO (2018) Low cost sustainable materials for grey water reclamation. Water Sci Technol 3:667–678

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katukiza A, Ronteltap M, Niwagaba C, Kansiime F, Lens P (2014) A two-step crushed lava rock filter unit for grey water treatment at household level in an urban slum. J Environ Manage 133:258–267

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar M, Patel AK, Shah AV, Raval J, Rajpara N, Joshi M, Joshi CG (2020) First proof of the capability of wastewater surveillance for COVID-19 in India through detection of genetic material of SARS-CoV-2. Sci Total Environ 746:141326

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • La Rosa G, Iaconelli M, Mancini P, Ferraro GB, Veneri C, Bonadonna L, Lucentini L, Suffredini E (2020) First detection of SARS-CoV-2 in untreated wastewaters in Italy. Sci Total Environ 736:139652

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li F, Wichmann K, Otterpohl R (2009) Review of the technological approaches for grey water treatment and reuses. Sci Total Environ 407(11):3439–3449

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li D, Zeng S, Gu AZ, He M, Shi H (2013) Inactivation, reactivation and regrowth of indigenous bacteria in reclaimed water after chlorine disinfection of a municipal wastewater treatment plant. J Environ Sci 25(7):1319–1325

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Majumder A, Gupta AK, Ghosal PS, Varma M (2021) A review on hospital wastewater treatment: a special emphasis on occurrence and removal of pharmaceutically active compounds, resistant microorganisms, and SARS-CoV-2. J Environ Chem Eng 9(2):104812

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miura T, Okabe S, Nakahara Y, Sano D (2015) Removal properties of human enteric viruses in a pilot-scale membrane bioreactor (MBR) process. Water Res 75:282–291

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Najmi M, Mehrnia MR, Tashauoei HR, Iranpoury A, Alivand MS (2020) Removal of personal care products (PCPs) from greywater using a submerged membrane bioreactor (SMBR): the effect of hydraulic retention time. J Environl Chem Eng 8(5):104432

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nasir AM, Adam MR, Kamal SNEAM, Jaafar J, Othman MHD, Ismail AF, Aziz F, Yusof N, Bilad MR, Mohamud R (2022) A review of the potential of conventional and advanced membrane technology in the removal of pathogens from wastewater. Sep Purif Technol 286:120454

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nasseri S, Yavarian J, Baghani AN, Azad TM, Nejati A, Nabizadeh R, Hadi M, Jandaghi NZS, Vakili B, Vaghefi SKA (2021) The presence of SARS-CoV-2 in raw and treated wastewater in 3 cities of Iran: Tehran, Qom and Anzali during coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak. J Environ Heal Sci Eng 19(1):573–584

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver MMH, Hewa GA, Pezzaniti D, Haque MA, Haque S, Haque MM, Moniruzzaman M, Rahman MM, Saha KK, Kadir MN (2020) COVID-19 and recycled wastewater irrigation: a review of implications. Preprints 2020060105. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202006.0105.v1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palmarin MJ, Young S (2019) Comparison of the treatment performance of a hybrid and conventional membrane bioreactor for greywater reclamation. J Water Process Eng 28:54–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radjenović J, Matošić M, Mijatović I, Petrović M, Barceló D (2007) Membrane bioreactor (MBR) as an advanced wastewater treatment technology. In: Barceló D, Petrovic M (eds) Emerging Contaminants Industrial and Municipal Waste. Springer, Cham, pp 37–101

    Google Scholar 

  • Randall C, Buth D (1984) Nitrite build-up in activated sludge resulting from temperature effects. J Water Poll Control Feder 59(9):1039–1044

    Google Scholar 

  • Ren X, Zhang Y, Chen H (2020) Graywater treatment technologies and reuse of reclaimed water for toilet flushing. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27(28):34653–34663

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ren X, Zhang M, Wang H, Dai X, Chen H (2021) Removal of personal care products in greywater using membrane bioreactor and constructed wetland methods. Sci Total Environ 797:148773

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rice EW, Baird RB, Eaton AD, Clesceri LS (2012) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association (APHA), Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Santasmasas C, Rovira M, Clarens F, Valderrama C (2013) Grey water reclamation by decentralized MBR prototype. Resour Conserv Recycl 72:102–107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherchan SP, Shahin S, Patel J, Ward LM, Tandukar S, Uprety S, Schmitz BW, Ahmed W, Simpson S, Gyawali P (2021) Occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in six municipal wastewater treatment plants at the early stage of COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. Pathog 10(7):798

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shi Y, Zhong S, Li Z (2021) Pilot tests on the treatment of bath wastewater by a membrane bioreactor. Membranes 11(2):85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shirbandi K, Barghandan S, Mobinfar O, Rahim F (2020) Inactivation of coronavirus with ultraviolet irradiation: What? How? Why? SSRN Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3571418

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons FJ, Kuo DHW, Xagoraraki I (2011) Removal of human enteric viruses by a full-scale membrane bioreactor during municipal wastewater processing. Water Res 45(9):2739–2750

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sodhi KK, Singh CK (2022) A systematic review on the occurrence, fate, and remediation of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater. Int J Environ Sci Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04326-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thebo AL, Drechsel P, Lambin E, Nelson K (2017) A global, spatially-explicit assessment of irrigated croplands influenced by urban wastewater flows. Environ Res Lett 12(7):074008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Wastewater Management. Municipal Support Division, National Risk Management Research Laboratory (US). Technology Transfer, & Support Division. (2004). Guidelines for water reuse. US Environmental Protection Agency.

  • Winward GP, Avery LM, Frazer-Williams R, Pidou M, Jeffrey P, Stephenson T, Jefferson B (2008) A study of the microbial quality of grey water and an evaluation of treatment technologies for reuse. Ecol Eng 32(2):187–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu B (2019) Membrane-based technology in greywater reclamation: a review.". Sci Total Environ 656:184–200

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wyllie AL, Fournier J, Casanovas-Massana A, Campbell M, Tokuyama M, Vijayakumar P, Geng B, Muenker MC, Moore AJ, Vogels CB (2020) Saliva is more sensitive for SARS-CoV-2 detection in COVID-19 patients than nasopharyngeal swabs. MedRxiv.

  • Xagoraraki I, Yin Z, Svambayev Z (2014) Fate of viruses in water systems. J Environ Eng 140(7):04014020

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yin Z, Tarabara VV, Xagoraraki I (2015) Human adenovirus removal by hollow fiber membranes: effect of membrane fouling by suspended and dissolved matter. J Memb Sci 482:120–127

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author Azadeh Babaei highly acknowledges the Fanniroo Co. for their constant support and guidance.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL, 35899, USA

    M. Shamskilani

  2. Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 1N4, Canada

    S. Najafi Chaleshtori

  3. Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan Medical University, Isfahan, 81746-73461, Iran

    S. Navid

  4. Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, 11365-8639, Iran

    A. Babaei & J. Shayegan

  5. Business Department, University Canada West, Vancouver, British Colombia, Canada

    S. Farsirad

Authors
  1. M. Shamskilani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. S. Najafi Chaleshtori
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. S. Navid
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. A. Babaei
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. J. Shayegan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. S. Farsirad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

MSH involved in investigation, validation, and writing—original draft. SNC involved in conceptualization, investigation, formal analysis, and writing—original draft. SN involved in validation, methodology, and writing—original draft. AB involved in conceptualization, supervision, and writing—review and editing. JSH involved in methodology, writing—review and editing, and conceptualization. SF involved in writing—review and editing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to A. Babaei.

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

Editorial responsibility: Samareh Mirkia.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Shamskilani, M., Najafi Chaleshtori, S., Navid, S. et al. Application of membrane bioreactor integrated with ultraviolet disinfection for simultaneous greywater treatment and SARS-CoV-2 removal. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 20, 11041–11048 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-023-05119-w

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-023-05119-w

Keywords

Search

Navigation