Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Determination of Tri halo methanes in indoor swimming pools, Kuwait and development of health risk index

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Tri halo methanes (THMs), a common disinfection by products in swimming pool water are the major concern in Kuwait. With the objective of assuring the safety and health of the swimmers, the study was focused on THMs in indoor pool samples collected from mid-July to October 2018. pH, temperature, residual chlorine, and total organic carbon were analyzed in relation to THMs. The concentration ranged from 1.9 to 85.7 µg/L in all pools, and the values were within the specification limits on an average for each pool. A few significant correlations were established between Tri halo methane components from statistical analysis. Since long-term exposure of Tri halo methanes affect swimmer's health, the total lifetime cancer risk index was calculated and observed that all the pools had a value greater than 10–6, including both male and female swimmers. The main contribution of risk identified from the study was chloroform exposure through inhalation. Also, the non-carcinogenic effect on swimmers using hazard index was estimated and determined that few pools exceeded the value1.0. The average total lifetime cancer risk of all pools for men and women (8.03 × 10−6 and 8.8 × 10−6 ), hazard index for men and women (1.31 and 1.43) were above guidelines and classified as risk. Therefore, the pools should be monitored and maintained with care to reduce the concentration of disinfectant used and subsequently lowers the generation of THMs. The frequent cleaning of pools will help to continue swimming without any long term exposure effects.

Graphical abstract

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abd El-Salam MM (2012) Assessment of water quality of some swimming pools: a case study in Alexandria, Egypt. Environ Monit Assess 184(12):7395–7406

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abdou M, Akel M, El-Shal WI, El-Naggar A (2005) Study of the environmental health aspects of swimming pools in Alexandria City. J Egypt Public Health Assoc 80(1–2):263–296

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali A, Chidambaram S (2020) Assessment of trace inorganic contaminates in water and sediment to address its impact on common fish varieties along Kuwait Bay. Environ Geochem Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00559-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Omari A, Fayyad M, Qader AA (2005) Modeling trihalomethane formation for Jabal Amman water supply in Jordan. Environ Model Assess 9(4):245–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amer Kanan. (2010). Occurrence and formation of Disinfection by-products in indoor Swimming pools water. All Dissertations. 532. https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_dissertations/532

  • Baird RB (2017) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 23rd. Water Environment Federation, American Public Health Association. ISBN: 9780875532875

  • Berlin and Beuth Verlag. (1997). Treatment and disinfection of water used in bathing facilities-Part1- General requirements, German Standard. Deutsches Institute for Normung. DIN 19643

  • Bisted O. (2002). Activated Carbon and UV for water treatment. 3rd International Conference on pool water quality and treatment. School of water sciences, Cranfield University

  • Boccelli DL, Tryby ME, Uber JG, Summers RS (2003) A reactive species model for chlorine decay and THM formation under rechlorination conditions. Water Res 37(11):2654–2666

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Budziak D, Carasek E (2007) Determination of trihalomethanes in drinking water from three different water sources in Florianopolis-Brazil using purge and trap and gas chromatography. J Braz Chem Soc 18(4):741–747

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caro J, Gallego M (2007) Assessment of exposure of workers and swimmers to trihalomethanes in an indoor swimming pool. Environ Sci Technol 41(13):4793–4798

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen M-J, Lin C-H, Duh J-M, Chou W-S, Hsu H-T (2011) Development of a multipathway probabilistic health risk assessment model for swimmers exposed to chloroform in indoor swimming pools. J Hazard Mater 185:1037–1044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.10.011

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chu H, Nieuwenhuijsen M (2002) Distribution and determinants of trihalomethane concentrations in indoor swimming pools. Occup Environ Med 59(4):243–247

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fantuzzi G, Righi E, Predieri G, Ceppelli G, Gobba F, Aggazzotti G (2001) Occupational exposure to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools. Sci Total Environ 264(3):257–265

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Felgueiras F, Mourão Z, Morais C, Santos H, Gabriel MF, de Oliveira FE (2020) Comprehensive assessment of the indoor air quality in a chlorinated Olympic-size swimming pool. Environ Int 136:105401

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Villanova RJ, Garcia C, Gomez JA, Garcia MP, Ardanuy R (1997) Formation, evolution and modeling of trihalomethanes in the drinking water of a town: II In the Distribution System. Water Res 31(6):1405–1413

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gouveia P, Felgueiras F, Mourão Z, Fernandes EDO, Moreira A, Gabriel MF (2019) Predicting health risk from exposure to trihalomethanes in an Olympic-size indoor swimming pool among elite swimmers and coaches. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A 82:577–590. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2019.1634383

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hang C, Zhang B, Gong T, Xian Q (2016) Occurrence and health risk assessment of halogenated disinfection by-products in indoor swimming pool water. Sci Total Environ 543:425–431

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen KM, Albrechtsen H-J, Andersen HR (2013) Optimal pH in chlorinated swimming pools–balancing formation of by-products. J Water Health 11(3):465–472

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen KM, Willach S, Antoniou MG, Mosbæk H, Albrechtsen H-J, Andersen HR (2012) Effect of pH on the formation of disinfection by-products in swimming pool water–is less THM better? Water Res 46(19):6399–6409

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heydari M, Parsa N, Davani R (2013) Potentially hazardous trihalomethanes (THMs) levels in chlorinated swimming pools’ water in fars province, Iran. J Health Sci Surveill Syst 1(2):67–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Hsu H, Chen M, Lin C, Chou W, Chen J (2009) Chloroform in indoor swimming-pool air: monitoring and modeling coupled with the effects of environmental conditions and occupant activities. Water Res 43(15):3693–3704

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hua G, Reckhow DA (2007) Characterization of disinfection by-product precursors based on hydrophobicity and molecular size. Environ Sci Technol 41(9):3309–3315

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • IRIS, Integrated Risk Information System (2009) United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Office of Research and Development (ORD). http://www.epa.gov/subst/0045.html

  • Jesonkova L, Bozek F (2013) Health risk assessment of trihalogenmethanes in drinking water. Int J Environ Ecol Eng 7(12):816–819

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim H, Shim J, Lee S (2002) Formation of disinfection by-products in chlorinated swimming pool water. Chemosphere 46(1):123–130

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kozłowska K, Polkowska Ż, Namieśnik J (2006) Effect of treated swimming pool water on the levels of trihalomethanes in swimmer’s urine. Toxicol Environ Chem 88(2):259–272

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee J, Ha K-T, Zoh K-D (2009) Characteristics of trihalomethane (THM) production and associated health risk assessment in swimming pool waters treated with different disinfection methods. Sci Total Environ 407(6):1990–1997

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lodhi A, Hashmi I, Nasir H, Khan R (2017) Effect of trihalomethanes (chloroform and bromoform) on human haematological count. J Water Health. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2017.207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erdinger L, Kühn KP, Kirsch F, Feldhues R, Fröbel T, Nohynek B, Gabrio T (2004) Pathways of trihalomethane uptake in swimming pools. Int J Hygiene Environ Health 207(6):571–575

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Manasfi T, Coulomb B, Boudenne J-L (2017) Occurrence, origin, and toxicity of disinfection by-products in chlorinated swimming pools: An overview. Int J Hyg Environ Health 220(3):591–603

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mao Y, Zhang L, Dong H (2018) Formation of trihalomethanes in swimming pool waters using sodium dichloroisocyanurate as an alternative disinfectant. Water Sci Technol 78(8):1633–1641

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mood EW (1953) Development and application of high-free residual chlorination in the treatment of swimming pool water. Am J Publ Health Nations Health 43(10):1258–1264

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mood EW, Robinton ED (1953) High free residual chlorine in swimming pool water-a preliminary study of bactericidal efficiency. Ind Eng Chem 45(11):2574–2576

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nadali A, Rahmani A, Asgari G, Leili M, Norouzi HA, Naghibi A (2019) The assessment of trihalomethanes concentrations in drinking water of Hamadan and Tuyserkan cities, Western Iran and its health risk on the exposed population. J Res Health Sci 19(1):e00441

    Google Scholar 

  • NSPF. (2006). Certified pool-spa operator handbook. National Swimming Pool Foundation, Colorado Springs, CO

  • Panyakapo M, Soontornchai S, Paopuree P (2008) Cancer risk assessment from exposure to trihalomethanes in tap water and swimming pool water. J Environ Sci 20(3):372–378

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pavón JLP, Martín SH, Pinto CG, Cordero BM (2008) Determination of trihalomethanes in water samples: a review. Anal Chim Acta 629(1–2):6–23

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peng F, Peng J, Li H, Li Y, Wang B, Yang Z (2020) Health risks and predictive modeling of disinfection by-products in swimming pools. Environ Int 139:105726

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rabi A, Khader Y, Alkafajei A, Abu Aqoulah A (2008) Sanitary conditions of public swimming pools in Amman, Jordan. Int J Environ Res Public Health 5(3):152–157

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson SD, Plewa MJ, Wagner ED, Schoeny R, DeMarini DM (2007) Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: a review and roadmap for research. Mutat Research/reviews Mutat Res 636(1–3):178–242

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Santa Marina L, Ibarluzea J, Basterrechea M, Goni F, Ulibarrena E, Artieda J, Orruño I (2009) Indoor air and bathing water pollution in indoor swimming pools in Guipuzcoa (Spain). Gac Sanit 23(2):115–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SC DHEC. (2007), South carolina department of health and environmental control. Public swimming pools. Bureau of Water, pp 51–61

  • Silva ZI, Rebelo MH, Silva MM, Alves AM, da Conceição CM, Almeida AC, Aguiar FR, de Oliveira AL, Nogueira AC, Pinhal HR (2012) Trihalomethanes in Lisbon indoor swimming pools: occurrence, determining factors, and health risk classification. J Toxicol Environ Health A 75(13–15):878–892

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • SIIR. (2009). Standard Institution and Iranian Industrial Research. Physical and chemical specification of drinking water. 5th revision. Tehran

  • Silva Lalith K, Backer Lorraine C, Ashley David L, Gordon Sydney M, Brinkman Marielle C, Nuckols John R, Wilkes Charles R, Blount Benjamin C (2013) The influence of physicochemical properties on the internal dose of trihalomethanes in humans following a controlled showering exposure. J Eposure Sci Environ Epidemiol 23(1):39–45

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tokmak B, Capar G, Dilek FB, Yetis U (2004) Trihalomethanes and associated potential cancer risks in the water supply in Ankara, Turkey. Environ Res 96(3):345–352

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • USEPA Method 501.3 (1996) United State Environmental Protection Agency. Measurement of Trihalomethanes in drinking water with Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry and Selected Ion Monitoring. Genium Publishing Corporation, Schenectady, NY 12304

  • USEPA (2003) User's manual swimmer exposure assessment model (SWIMODEL) version 3.0. Office of Pesticide Programs Antimicrobials Division

  • USEPA (2006) National primary drinking water regulations: stage 2 disinfectants and disinfection by products rule: final rule. In. Fed. Regist. 71(2)

  • USEPA (2009) Integrated Risk Information System (Electronic Data Base). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/iris [Accessed June, 2009]

  • USEPA (2009) Exposure Factors Handbook: 2009 Update. EPA/600/R-09/052a. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC

  • Villanueva CM, Cantor KP, Grimalt JO, Malats N, Silverman D, Tardon A, Garcia-Closas R, Serra C, Carrato A, Castano-Vinyals G (2007a) Bladder cancer and exposure to water disinfection by-products through ingestion, bathing, showering, and swimming in pools. Am J Epidemiol 165(2):148–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Villanueva CM, Gagniere B, Monfort C, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Cordier S (2007b) Sources of variability in levels and exposure to trihalomethanes. Environ Res 103(2):211–220

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang G, Deng Y, Lin T (2007) Cancer risk assessment from trihalomethanes in drinking water. Sci Total Environ 387:86–95

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2006). Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments Volume 2: Swimming Pools and Similar Environments Geneva, Switzerland

  • Weisel CP, Chen WJ (1994) Exposure to chlorination by-products from hot water uses. Risk Anal 14(1):101–106

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Westerhoff P, Chao P, Mash H (2004) Reactivity of natural organic matter with aqueous chlorine and bromine. Water Res 38(6):1502–1513

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zwiener C, Richardson SD, De Marini DM, Grummt T, Glauner T, Frimmel FH (2007) Drowning in disinfection by-products? Assessing swimming pool water. Environ Sci Technol 41(2):363–372

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), Kuwait, for the financial assistance of the project EM102K headed in Environment & Life Sciences Research Center. The authors thank Water Research Center (WRC) of KISR for their support in implementation of the study in the WRC lab.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Water Research Center, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait City, Kuwait

    D. R. Samayamanthula

  2. Environment and Life Sciences Research Center, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait City, Kuwait

    M. E. Bhatti, N. F. Al-Enazi, Z. A. J. Rashid, S. A. Al-Kandari & H. Jacob

Authors
  1. D. R. Samayamanthula
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. M. E. Bhatti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. N. F. Al-Enazi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Z. A. J. Rashid
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. S. A. Al-Kandari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. H. Jacob
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

DRS and MEB conceptualized the idea, MEB provided the necessary resources to carry out this research and supervised by him. The following authors are responsible for carrying out the analysis. DRS analyzed THM and Total Organic Carbon; MEB analyzed Residual chlorine; HJ analyzed the micro biological parameters, ZAJR analyzed pH and total dissolved solids; NFAE SAAK are responsible for sampling and field analysis like temperature and electrical conductivity. Finally, DRS processed and analyzed the datasets, developed the technical inputs by formal analysis of computer programming using SPSS, wrote the manuscript and reviewed.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to D. R. Samayamanthula.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict interest.

Consent to publish

Since this study is not attempting to republish or publish any third party or author’s previously published material, this section does not apply.

Additional information

Editorial responsibility: Nour Sh. El-Gendy.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Samayamanthula, D.R., Bhatti, M.E., Al-Enazi, N.F. et al. Determination of Tri halo methanes in indoor swimming pools, Kuwait and development of health risk index. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 19, 7575–7588 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03667-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03667-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation