Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Role of Church Support Networks in the Relationship between Discrimination and Psychiatric Disorders among Older African Americans

  • Original Research
  • Published:
Review of Religious Research

Abstract

Background

Few studies have examined the effects of discrimination on mental health specifically among older African Americans despite it being a common experience in this population. Further, knowledge on social resources, such as social relationships, that could mitigate the effects of discrimination is limited in this population. Given the historical and contemporaneous importance of the Black church in African American communities, church members are important support network members and a major source of social support for older African Americans.

Purpose

To address these knowledge gaps, this study will (1) examine the association between racial discrimination and psychiatric disorders; and (2) determine whether church relationships moderate the impact of racial discrimination on psychiatric disorders.

Methods

Data from African American respondents aged 55 and older were drawn from the National Survey of American Life (N = 837). Church relationship variables included receipt of emotional support from, frequency of contact with, and subjective closeness to church members. Regression analyses were used to test the study aims.

Results

Analyses indicated that more frequent experiences of racial discrimination were associated with meeting criteria for any DSM-IV disorder and a greater number of DSM-IV disorders. Significant interactions revealed that frequency of contact with and subjective closeness to church members mitigated the association between discrimination and meeting criteria for any 12-month disorder and number of 12-month disorders.

Conclusions and Implications

Altogether, these findings support the literature on the detrimental effects of discrimination on the mental health of older African Americans and provide a more nuanced understanding of the role of church members in the lives of older African Americans. The study findings suggest that church relationships are effective stress coping resources for older African Americans dealing with discrimination. Given the importance and relevance of church members, initial clinical assessments should assess clients’ level of religious involvement and relationships with church members.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alvarez, Kiara, Mirko Fillbrunn, Jennifer Greif Green, James S. Jackson, Ronald C. Kessler, Katie A. McLaughlin, Ekaterina Sadikova, Nancy A. Sampson, and Margarita Alegría. 2019. Race/ethnicity, nativity, and lifetime risk of mental disorders in US adults. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 54(5): 553–565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-018-1644-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bierman, Alex. 2006. Does religion buffer the effects of discrimination on mental health? Differing effects by race. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 45(4): 551–565. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2006.00327.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, Joshua, Sergio Aguilar-Gaxiola, Kenneth S. Kendler, Su. Maxwell, David Williams, and Ronald C. Kessler. 2006. Specifying race-ethnic differences in risk for psychiatric disorder in a USA national sample. Psychological Medicine 36(01): 57–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Britt-Spells, Angelitta M., Maribeth Slebodnik, Laura P. Sands, and David Rollock. 2016. Effects of perceived discrimination on depressive symptoms among Black men residing in the United States: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Men’s Health 12: 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chae, David H., Karen D. Lincoln, and James S. Jackson. 2011. Discrimination, attribution, and racial group identification: implications for psychological distress among Black Americans in the National Survey of American Life (2001–2003). American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 81(4): 498–506.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chatters, Linda M., Robert J. Taylor, Karen D. Lincoln, Ann Nguyen, and Sean Joe. 2011. Church-based social support and suicidality among African Americans and Black Caribbeans. Archives of Suicide Research 15(4): 337–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2011.615703.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chatters, Linda M., Robert J. Taylor, Amanda T. Woodward, and Emily J. Nicklett. 2015. Social support from church and family members and depressive symptoms among older African Americans. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 23(6): 559–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2014.04.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, Trenette T., Christopher P. Salas-Wright, Michael G. Vaughn, and Keith E. Whitfield. 2015. Everyday discrimination and mood and substance use disorders: a latent profile analysis with African Americans and Caribbean Blacks. Addictive Behaviors 40: 119–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., and T.A. Wills. 1985. Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin 98(2): 310–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dilworth-Anderson, Peggye, Sharon Wallace Williams, and Theresa Cooper. 1999. The contexts of experiencing emotional distress among family caregivers to elderly African Americans. Family Relations 48(4): 391–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, Christopher G., Reed T. DeAngelis, and Metin Güven. 2017. Does religious involvement mitigate the effects of major discrimination on the mental health of African Americans? Findings from the Nashville Stress and Health Study. Religions 8(9): 195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, Christopher G., and Jeff Levin. 1998. The religion-health connection: evidence, theory, and future directions. Health Education & Behavior 25(6): 700–720.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, Christopher G., M.A. Musick, and A.K. Henderson. 2008. Balm in Gilead: Racism, religious involvement, and psychological distress among African-American adults. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 47(2): 291–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, Edward Franklin, and C Eric Lincoln. 1974. The negro church in America. Sourcebooks in Negro History.

  • Hasin, Deborah S., Aaron L. Sarvet, Jacquelyn L. Meyers, Tulshi D. Saha, W. June Ruan, Malka Stohl, and Bridget F. Grant. 2018. Epidemiology of adult DSM-5 major depressive disorder and its specifiers in the United States. JAMA Psychiatry 75(4): 336–346. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4602.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Head, Rachel N., and Maxine S. Thompson. 2017. Discrimination-related anger, religion, and distress: differences between African Americans and Caribbean Black Americans. Society and Mental Health 7(3): 159–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869317711225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Himle, J.A., R.E. Baser, Robert J. Taylor, R.D. Campbell, and J.S. Jackson. 2009. Anxiety disorders among African Americans, blacks of Caribbean descent, and non-Hispanic whites in the United States. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 23(5): 578–590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.01.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, James S., Myriam Torres, Cleopatra H. Caldwell, Harold W. Neighbors, Randolph M. Nesse, Robert J. Taylor, Steven J. Trierweiler, and David R. Williams. 2004. The National Survey of American Life: a study of racial, ethnic and cultural influences on mental disorders and mental health. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 13(4): 196–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, Ronald C., T. Bedirhan, and Ustün. . 2004. The world mental health (WMH) survey initiative version of the world health organization (WHO) composite international diagnostic interview (CIDI). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 13(2): 93–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, Neal. 2006. Exploring the stress-buffering effects of church-based and secular social support on self-rated health in late life. The Journals of Gerontology Series b: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 61(1): S35–S43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, Neal, and David R. Hayward. 2015. Social perspectives: Support, social relations, and well-being. In APA Handbook of Clinical Geropsychology, ed. Peter A. Lichtenberg, Benjamin T. Mast, Brian D. Carpenter, and Julie Loebach Wetherell, 259–299. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause, Neal, and K.M. Wulff. 2005. Friendship ties in the church and depressive symptoms: exploring variations by age. Review of Religious Research 46(4): 325–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, Richard S., and Susan Folkman. 1984. Stress, Appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, Debra Siegel, Joseph A. Himle, Jamie M. Abelson, Niki Matusko, Nikhil Dhawan, and Robert J. Taylor. 2014. Discrimination and social anxiety disorder among African–Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and non-Hispanic Whites. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 202(3): 224–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, Debra Siegel, Robert J. Taylor, Ann W. Nguyen, Linda M. Chatters, and Joseph A. Himle. 2015. Family and friendship informal support networks and social anxiety disorder among African Americans and Black Caribbeans. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 50(7): 1121–1133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-015-1023-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, C Eric, and Lawrence H. Mamiya. 1990. The Black church in the African American experience. Duke University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, Karen D., and D.H. Chae. 2012. Emotional support, negative interaction and major depressive disorder among African Americans and Caribbean Blacks: Findings from the National Survey of American Life. Social Psychiatry Psychiatric Epidemiology 47(3): 361–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-011-0347-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, Karen D., Linda M. Chatters, and Robert J. Taylor. 2003. Psychological Distress among Black and White Americans: differential effects of social support, negative interaction and personal control. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 44(3): 390–407. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519786.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, Karen D., Linda M. Chatters, and Robert J. Taylor. 2005. Social support, traumatic events, and depressive symptoms among African Americans. Journal of Marriage and the Family 67(3): 754–766.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, Karen D., Robert J. Taylor, Linda M. Chatters, and Sean Joe. 2012. Suicide, negative interaction and emotional support among black Americans. Social Psychiatry Psychiatric Epidemiology 47(12): 1947–1958. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-012-0512-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mays, B., and J.W. Nicholson. 1933. The Negro’s Church. New York: Institute of Social and Religious Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin, Katie A., Mark L. Hatzenbuehler, and Katherine M. Keyes. 2010. Responses to discrimination and psychiatric disorders among Black, Hispanic, female, and lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. American Journal of Public Health 100(8): 1477–1484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, Uchechi A., Melissa Gutierrez-Kapheim, Ann W. Nguyen, and Nadia Al-Amin. 2020. Hopelessness among middle-aged and older Blacks: the negative impact of discrimination and protecting power of social and religious resources. Innovation in Aging. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa044.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mood, Carina. 2010. Logistic regression: why we cannot do what we think we can do, and what we can do about it. European Sociological Review 26(1): 67–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mouzon, Dawne M., Robert J. Taylor, Verna M. Keith, Emily J. Nicklett, and Linda M. Chatters. 2016. Discrimination and psychiatric disorders among older African Americans. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 35: 175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myrdal, Gunnar. 1944. An American dilemma: The Negro problem and modern democracy. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Public Radio, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. 2017. Discrimination in America: Experiences and views of African Americans.

  • Nguyen, Ann W. 2018. African American elders, mental health, and the role of the church. Generations 42(2): 61–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen, Ann W. 2020. Religion and mental health in racial and ethnic minority populations: a review of the literature. Innovation in Aging. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa035.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen, Ann W., Linda M. Chatters, Robert J. Taylor, María P. Aranda, Karen D. Lincoln, and Courtney S. Thomas. 2017. Discrimination, serious psychological distress, and church-based emotional support among African American men across the life span. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B 73(2): 198–207. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx083.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen, Ann W., Linda M. Chatters, Robert J. Taylor, Debra Siegel Levine, and Joseph A. Himle. 2016. Family, friends, and 12-month PTSD among African Americans. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 51: 1149–1157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-016-1239-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen, Ann W., Robert J. Taylor, Linda M. Chatters, Harry Owen Taylor, and Amanda Toler Woodward. 2020. Professional service use among older African Americans, Black Caribbeans, and Non-Hispanic Whites for serious health and emotional problems. Social Work in Health Care 59: 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nooney, J., and E. Woodrum. 2002. Religious coping and church-based social support as predictors of mental health outcomes: testing a conceptual model. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 41(2): 359–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pieterse, Alex L., Nathan R. Todd, Helen A. Neville, and Robert T. Carter. 2012. Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Counseling Psychology 59(1): 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qin, Weidi, Ann W. Nguyen, Dawne M. Mouzon, Tyrone C. Hamler, and Fei Wang. 2020. Social support, everyday discrimination, and depressive symptoms among older African Americans: a longitudinal study. Innovation in Aging. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa032.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulz, Amy J., Clarence C. Gravlee, David R. Williams, Barbara A. Israel, Graciela Mentz, and Zachary Rowe. 2006. Discrimination, symptoms of depression, and self-rated health among African American women in Detroit: results from a longitudinal analysis. American Journal of Public Health 96(7): 1265–1270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soto, José A., Nana A. Dawson-Andoh, and Rhonda BeLue. 2011. The relationship between perceived discrimination and generalized anxiety disorder among African Americans, Afro Caribbeans and non-Hispanic Whites. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 25(2): 258–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.09.011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, Robert J., and Linda M. Chatters. 1988. Church members as a source of informal social support. Review of Religious Research 30(2): 193–203. https://doi.org/10.2307/3511355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, Robert J., Linda M. Chatters, and R. Khari Brown. 2014. African American religious participation. Review of Religious Research 56(4): 513–538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-013-0144-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, Robert Joseph, and Linda M. Chatters. 2020. Psychiatric disorders among older Black Americans: Within- and between-group differences. Innovation in Aging 4(3): igaa007. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thoits, Peggy A. 2011. Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 52(2): 145–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U. S. Census Bureau. 2015. Projections of the size and composition of the U.S. population: 2014 to 2060. In Current Population Reports.

  • Vilsaint, Corrie L., Amanda NeMoyer, Mirko Fillbrunn, Ekaterina Sadikova, Ronald C. Kessler, Nancy A. Sampson, Kiara Alvarez, et al. 2019. Racial/ethnic differences in 12-month prevalence and persistence of mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders: variation by nativity and socioeconomic status. Comprehensive Psychiatry 89: 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.12.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheaton, Blair. 1985. Models for the stress-buffering functions of coping resources. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 26(4): 352–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, Kellee, Bethany A. Bell, Shuo J. Huang, and David R. Williams. 2020. Perceived discrimination trajectories and depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older Black adults. Innovation in Aging. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa041.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, David R., Yu. Yan, James S. Jackson, and Norman B. Anderson. 1997. Racial differences in physical and mental health socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology 2(3): 335–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

The preparation of this article was supported by a grant from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute to A. W. Nguyen (5R25HL105444-11).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA

    Ann W. Nguyen, Fei Wang, Weidi Qin & Tyrone C. Hamler

Authors
  1. Ann W. Nguyen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Fei Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Weidi Qin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Tyrone C. Hamler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ann W. Nguyen.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Nguyen, A.W., Wang, F., Qin, W. et al. The Role of Church Support Networks in the Relationship between Discrimination and Psychiatric Disorders among Older African Americans. Rev Relig Res 64, 35–54 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-021-00464-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-021-00464-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation