Abstract
This study uses Swedish population register data to investigate the relationship between birth order and mortality at ages 30 to 69 for Swedish cohorts born between 1938 and 1960, using a within-family comparison. The main analyses are conducted with discrete-time survival analysis using a within-family comparison, and the estimates are adjusted for age, mother’s age at the time of birth, and cohort. Focusing on sibships ranging in size from two to six, we find that mortality risk in adulthood increases with later birth order. The results show that the relative effect of birth order is greater among women than among men. This pattern is consistent for all the major causes of death but is particularly pronounced for mortality attributable to cancers of the respiratory system and to external causes. Further analyses in which we adjust for adult socioeconomic status and adult educational attainment suggest that social pathways only mediate the relationship between birth order and mortality risk in adulthood to a limited degree.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Altieri, A., & Hemminki, K. (2007). Number of siblings and the risk of solid tumours: A nationwide study. British Journal of Cancer, 96, 1755–1759.
Amirian, E., Scheurer, M. E., & Bondy, M. L. (2010). The association between birth order, sibship size and glioma development in adulthood. International Journal of Cancer, 126, 2752–2756.
Andersson, G., & Kolk, M. (2011). Trends in childbearing and nuptiality in Sweden: An update with data up to 2007. Finnish Yearbook of Population Research, 46, 21–29.
Andersson, G., Ronsen, M., Knudsen, L. B., Lappedgård, T., Neyer, G., Skrede, K., . . . Vikat, A. (2009). Cohort fertility patterns in the Nordic countries. Demographic Research, 20(article 14), 313–352. doi: 10.4054/DemRes.2009.20.14
Barclay, K. J. (2015a). A within-family analysis of birth order and intelligence using population conscription data on Swedish men. Intelligence, 49, 134–143.
Barclay, K. J. (2015b). Birth order and educational attainment: Evidence from fully adopted sibling groups. Intelligence, 48, 109–122.
Bard, D. E., & Rodgers, J. L. (2003). Sibling influence on smoking behavior: A within-family look at explanations for a birth-order effect. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33, 1773–1795.
Batty, G. D., Deary, I. J., & Gottfredson, L. S. (2007). Premorbid (early life) IQ and later mortality risk: Systematic review. Annals of Epidemiology, 17, 278–288.
Bengtsson, T., & Broström, G. (2009). Do conditions in early life affect old-age mortality directly or indirectly? Evidence from 19th-century rural Sweden. Social Science & Medicine, 68, 1583–1590.
Bengtsson, T., & Mineau, G. P. (2009). Early-life effects on socio-economic performance and mortality in later life: A full life-course approach using contemporary and historical sources. Social Science & Medicine, 68, 1561–1564.
Bevier, M., Weires, M., Thomsen, H., Sundquist, J., & Hemminki, K. (2011). Influence of family size and birth order on risk of cancer: A population-based study. BMC Cancer, 11. doi:10.1186/1471-2407-11-163
Bjerkedal, T., Kristensen, P., Skjeret, G. A., & Brevik, J. I. (2007). Intelligence test scores and birth order among young Norwegian men (conscripts) analyzed within and between families. Intelligence, 35, 503–514.
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanes, K. G. (2005). The more the merrier? The effect of family size and birth order on children’s education. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 120, 669–700.
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanes, K. G. (2007). From the cradle to the labor market? The effect of birth weight on adult outcomes. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122, 409–439.
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanes, K. G. (2011). Older and wiser? Birth order and IQ of young men. CESifo Economic Studies, 57, 103–120.
Blake, J. (1981). Family size and the quality of children. Demography, 18, 421–442.
Blane, H. T., & Barry, H. (1973). Birth order and alcoholism: A review. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 34, 837–852.
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371–399.
Buckles, K., & Kolka, S. (2014). Prenatal investments, breastfeeding, and birth order. Social Science & Medicine, 118, 66–70.
Campbell, F., Conti, G., Heckman, J., Moon, S. H., Pinto, R., Pungello, E., & Pan, Y. (2014). Early childhood investments substantially boost adult health. Science, 343, 1478–1485.
Chen, J., & Millar, W. J. (1998). Age of smoking initiation: Implications for quitting. Health Reports, 9(4), 39–46.
Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2008). The collective dynamics of smoking in a large social network. New England Journal of Medicine, 358, 2249–2258.
Elliott, B. A. (1992). Birth order and health: Major issues. Social Science & Medicine, 35, 443–452.
Erikson, R., & Goldthorpe, J. H. (1992). The constant flux: A study of class mobility in industrial societies. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
Erikson, R., Goldthorpe, J. H., & Portocarero, L. (1979). Intergenerational class mobility in three Western European societies: England, France and Sweden. British Journal of Sociology, 30, 415–441.
Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., Cooper, C., & Thornburg, K. L. (2008). Effect of in utero and early-life conditions on adult health and disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 359, 61–73.
Greene, W. H. (2012). Econometric analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Gualtieri, T., & Hicks, R. E. (1985). An immunoreactive theory of selective male affliction. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8, 427–441.
Hagestad, G. O. (1986). The family: Women and grandparents as kin-keepers. In A. J. Pifer & L. Bronte (Eds.), Our aging society: Paradox and promise (pp. 141–160). New York, NY: W.W. Norton.
Hamil-Luker, J., & O’Rand, A. M. (2007). Gender differences in the link between childhood socioeconomic conditions and heart attack risk in adulthood. Demography, 44, 137–158.
Harakeha, Z., Engelsa, R. C. M. E., Vermulsta, A. A., De Vriesb, H., & Scholtea, R. H. J. (2007). The influence of best friends and siblings on adolescent smoking: A longitudinal study. Psychology and Health, 22, 269–289.
Härkönen, J. (2014). Birth order effects on educational attainment and educational transitions in West Germany. European Sociological Review, 30, 166–179.
Hayward, M. D., & Gorman, B. K. (2004). The long arm of childhood: The influence of early-life social conditions on men’s mortality. Demography, 41, 87–107.
Heckman, J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312, 1900–1902.
Heckman, J. J., Moon, S. H., Pinto, R., Savelyev, P. A., & Yavitz, A. (2010). The rate of return to the High/Scope Perry Preschool Program. Journal of Public Economics, 94, 114–128.
Hemminki, K., & Mutanen, P. (2001). Birth order, family size, and the risk of cancer in young and middle-aged adults. British Journal of Cancer, 84, 1466–1471.
Hertwig, R., Davis, J. N., & Sulloway, F. J. (2002). Parental investment: How an equity motive can produce inequality. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 728–745.
Holman, R. C., Shay, D. K., Curns, A. T., Lingappa, J. R., & Anderson, L. J. (2003). Risk factors for bronchiolitis-associated deaths among infants in the United States. Paediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 22, 483–489.
Hosmer, D. W., Jr., Lemeshow, S. A., & Sturdivant, R. X. (2013). Applied logistic regression (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Janssen, F., & Kunst, A. E. (2004). ICD coding changes and discontinuities in trends in cause-specific mortality in six European countries, 1950–99. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 82, 904–913.
Janssen, F., & Kunst, A. E. (2005). Cohort patterns in mortality trends among the elderly in seven European countries, 1950–99. International Journal of Epidemiology, 34, 1149–1159.
Khlat, M., Jusot, F., & Ville, I. (2009). Social origins, early hardship and obesity: A strong association in women, but not in men? Social Science & Medicine, 68, 1692–1699.
Khuder, S. A., Dayal, H. H., & Mutgi, A. B. (1999). Age at smoking onset and its effect on smoking cessation. Addictive Behaviors, 24, 673–677.
Knudsen, E. I., Heckman, J. J., Cameron, J. L., & Shonkoff, J. P. (2006). Economic, neurobiological, and behavioral perspectives on building America’s future workforce. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103, 10155–10162.
Kristensen, P., & Bjerkedal, T. (2007). Explaining the relation between birth order and intelligence. Science, 316, 1717.
Kristensen, P., & Bjerkedal, T. (2010). Educational attainment of 25 year old Norwegians according to birth order and gender. Intelligence, 38, 123–136.
Lager, A. C. J., & Torssander, J. (2012). Causal effect of education on mortality in a quasi-experiment on 1.2 million Swedes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 8461–8466.
Leonardi-Bee, J., Jere, M. L., & Britton, J. (2011). Exposure to parental and sibling smoking and the risk of smoking uptake in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Thorax, 66, 847–855.
Mackenbach, J. P., Kunst, A. E., Cavelaars, A. E. J. M., Groenhof, F., & Geurts, J. J. M. (1997). Socioeconomic inequalities in morbidity and mortality in Western Europe. Lancet, 349, 1655–1659.
Magnus, P., Berg, K., & Bjerkedal, T. (1985). The association of parity and birth weight: Testing the sensitization hypothesis. Early Human Development, 12, 49–54.
Marmot, M. (2004). The status syndrome: How social standing directly affects our health and longevity. London, UK: Bloomsbury.
Maty, S. C., Lynch, J. W., Raghunathan, T. E., & Kaplan, G. A. (2008). Childhood socioeconomic position, gender, adult body mass index, and incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus over 34 years in the Alameda County Study. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 1486–1494.
Modin, B. (2002). Birth order and mortality: A life-long follow-up of 14,200 boys and girls born in early 20th century Sweden. Social Science & Medicine, 54, 1051–1064.
Myrskylä, M., & Fenelon, A. (2012). Maternal age and offspring adult health: Evidence from the Health and Retirement Study. Demography, 49, 1231–1257.
Myrskylä, M., Silventoinen, K., Jelenkovic, A., Tynelius, P., & Rasmussen, F. (2013). The association between height and birth order: Evidence from 652 518 Swedish men. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 67, 571–577.
O’Leary, S. R., Wingard, D. L., Edelstein, S. L., Criqui, M. H., Tucker, J. S., & Friedman, H. S. (1996). Is birth order associated with adult mortality? Annals of Epidemiology, 6, 34–40.
Price, J. (2008). Parent-child quality time: Does birth order matter? Journal of Human Resources, 43, 240–265.
Primo, D. M., Jacobsmeier, M. L., & Milyo, J. (2007). The practical researcher: Estimating the impact of state policies and institutions with mixed-level data. State Politics and Policy Quarterly, 7, 446–459.
Read, J. G., & Gorman, B. K. (2010). Gender and health inequality. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 371–386.
Richards, S. J., Kirkby, J. G., & Currie, I. D. (2006). The importance of year of birth in two-dimensional mortality data. British Actuarial Journal, 12, 5–61.
Richiardi, L., Akre, O., Lambe, M., Granath, F., Montgomery, S. M., & Ekbom, A. (2004). Birth order, sibship size, and risk for germ-cell testicular cancer. Epidemiology, 15, 323–329.
Rodgers, J. L. (2001). What causes birth order-intelligence patterns? The admixture hypothesis, revived. American Psychologist, 56, 505–510.
Rodgers, J. L., Cleveland, H. H., van den Oord, E., & Rowe, D. C. (2000). Resolving the debate over birth order, family size, and intelligence. American Psychologist, 55, 599–612.
Rodgers, J. L., & Rowe, D. C. (1988). Influence of siblings on adolescent sexual behavior. Developmental Psychology, 24, 722–728.
Rosenquist, J. N., Murabito, J., Fowler, J. H., & Christakis, N. A. (2010). The spread of alcohol consumption behavior in a large social network. Annals of Internal Medicine, 152, 426–433.
Rossi, A. S., & Rossi, P. H. (1990). Of human bonding: Parent-child relations across the life course. New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
SCB. (2011). Multi-generation register 2010: A description of contents and quality. Stockholm: Statistics Sweden.
Schmidt, C. O., & Kohlmann, T. (2008). When to use the odds ratio or the relative risk? International Journal of Public Health, 53, 165–167.
Sénéchal, M., & LeFevre, J.-A. (2002). Parental involvement in the development of children’s reading skill: A five-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 73, 445–460.
Sénéchal, M., Lefevre, J.-A., Thomas, E. M., & Daley, K. E. (1998). Differential effects of home literacy experiences on the development of oral and written language. Reading Research Quarterly, 33, 96–116.
Smith, K. R., Mineau, G. P., Garibotti, G., & Kerber, R. (2009). Effects of childhood and middle-adulthood family conditions on later-life mortality: Evidence from the Utah Population Database, 1850–2002. Social Science & Medicine, 68, 1649–1658.
Socialstyrelsen. (2010). Dödsorsaker 2010 [Causes of death 2010]. Stockholm, Sweden: Socialstyrelsen.
Strachan, D. P. (1989). Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. British Medical Journal, 299, 1259–1260.
Sulloway, F. J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. London, UK: Little, Brown and Company.
Sulloway, F. J., & Zweigenhaft, R. L. (2010). Birth order and risk taking in athletics: A meta-analysis and study of major league baseball. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14, 402–416.
Sundström, M., & Duvander, A.-Z. E. (2002). Gender division of childcare and the sharing of parental leave among new parents in Sweden. European Sociological Review, 18, 433–447.
Torssander, J., & Erikson, R. (2010). Stratification and mortality—A comparison of education, class, status, and income. European Sociological Review, 26, 465–474.
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. (2013). World Mortality Report 2013. New York, NY: United Nations.
Willson, A. E., Shuey, K. M., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (2007). Cumulative advantage processes as mechanisms of inequality in life course health. American Journal of Sociology, 112, 1886–1924.
Young, M., & Willmott, P. (1957). Family and kinship in East London. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Zajonc, R. B. (1976). Family configuration and intelligence. Science, 192, 227–236.
Zajonc, R. B., & Markus, G. B. (1975). Birth order and intellectual development. Psychological Review, 82, 74–88.
Zhang, J., & Kai, F. Y. (1998). What’s the relative risk? Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 1690–1691.
Zweigenhaft, R. L., & Von Ammon, J. (2000). Birth order and civil disobedience: A test of Sulloway’s “born to rebel” hypothesis. Journal of Social Psychology, 140, 624–627.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
ESM 1
(PDF 41 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Barclay, K., Kolk, M. Birth Order and Mortality: A Population-Based Cohort Study. Demography 52, 613–639 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-015-0377-2
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-015-0377-2