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Encapsulated deep eutectic solvent for esterification of free fatty acid

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Abstract

A novel encapsulated deep eutectic solvent (DES) was introduced for biodiesel production via a two-step process. The DES was encapsulated in medical capsules and were used to reduce the free fatty acid (FFA) content of acidic crude palm oil (ACPO) to the minimum acceptable level (< 1%). The DES was synthesized from methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide (MTPB) and p-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA). The effects pertaining to different operating conditions such as capsule dosage, reaction time, molar ratio, and reaction temperature were optimized. The FFA content of ACPO was reduced from existing 9.61% to less than 1% under optimum operating conditions. This indicated that encapsulated MTPB-DES performed high catalytic activity in FFA esterification reaction and showed considerable activity even after four consecutive recycling runs. The produced biodiesel after acid esterification and alkaline transesterification met the EN14214 international biodiesel standard specifications. To our best knowledge, this is the first study to introduce an acidic catalyst in capsule form. This method presents a new route for the safe storage of new materials to be used for biofuel production. Conductor-like screening model for real solvents (COSMO-RS) representation of the DES using σ-profile and σ-potential graphs indicated that MTPB and PTSA is a compatible combination due to the balanced presence and affinity towards hydrogen bond donor and hydrogen bond acceptor in each constituent.

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Acknowledgements

The financial support of the Research Center of College of Engineering, Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud University, and the assistance of Ms. Shahida Rashid with some of the experiments are gratefully acknowledged. In addition, the authors would like to express their gratitude to the Centre for Ionic Liquids (UMCiL) University of Malaya and Centre for Separation Science & Technology (CSST), Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

    Adeeb Hayyan, Hanee F. Hizaddin, Khalid M. Abed & Mohd Ali Hashim

  2. Centre for Separation Science & Technology (CSST), Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

    Adeeb Hayyan, Hanee F. Hizaddin, Andrew T. H. Yeow & Ahmaad Kadmouse Aldeehani

  3. Chemical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, 10071, Iraq

    Khalid M. Abed

  4. Petroleum & Chemical Engineering Department, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, 123, Oman

    Farouq S. Mjalli

  5. Vesta Si Sweden AB, Folkets Husvägen 36, 84010, Ljungaverk, Sweden

    Ali Abo-Hamad

  6. Chemical Engineering Department, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Riyadh, 11421, Saudi Arabia

    Jehad Saleh

  7. Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Qassim University, Buraydah, 51452, Saudi Arabia

    Abdullah S. M. Aljohani & Yousef M. Alharbi

  8. Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Buraydah, 51452, Saudi Arabia

    Fahad A. Alhumaydhi

  9. Department of Science in Engineering, Kulliyyah of Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia, 50728, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

    Abdul Aziz Ahmad

  10. Production Operation Department, Kuwait Oil Company, P.O Box 9758, Ahmadi, Kuwait

    Falah D. H. Alajmi

  11. Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

    Inas Al Nashef

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  1. Adeeb Hayyan
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  2. Hanee F. Hizaddin
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Correspondence to Adeeb Hayyan.

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Hayyan, A., Hizaddin, H.F., Abed, K.M. et al. Encapsulated deep eutectic solvent for esterification of free fatty acid. Biomass Conv. Bioref. 12, 3725–3735 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-021-01913-z

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