Abstract
In this opinion piece, I discuss a range of issues associated with the inclusion of gender diverse students’ responses in the analyses of large-scale mathematics education data sets. Definitions of the terms gender and sex over time are examined, as well as the associated gender and sex categories that have and can be used. Of particular interest are the challenges confronting researchers of gender issues in mathematics education who are sympathetic to gender inclusivity and want to conduct statistical analyses of large-scale data sets. In light of the statistical limitations described, some suggestions are proposed for overcoming them.
Notes
“The term ‘intersex’ refers to people who are born with genetic, hormonal or physical sex characteristics that are not typically ‘male’ or ‘female.’ Intersex people have a diversity of bodies and identities.” (Australian Government 2015, p. 9)
“A person of indeterminate sex or gender is either someone whose biological sex cannot be unambiguously determined or someone who identifies as neither male nor female. Many terms are used to recognise people who do not fall within the traditional binary notions of sex and gender (male and female), including nonbinary, gender diverse, gender queer, pan-gendered, androgynous and inter-gender. Some cultures may have their own terms for gender identities outside male and female, for example, ‘sistergirl’ and ‘brotherboy’ are used by some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.” (Australian Government 2015, p. 9)
“An umbrella term for persons whose gender identity, gender expression or behavior does not conform to that typically associated with the sex to which they were assigned at birth.” (American Psychological Association 2020)
Variance is the square of the standard deviation (the spread of scores from the mean).
References
American Psychological Association. (2020). Transgender people, gender identity and gender expression. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/topics/lgbt/transgender
Anzaldúa, G. (1991). To(o) Queer the Writer – Loca, escritora, y chicana. In B. Warland (Ed.), InVersions: writings by dykes, queers & lesbians (pp. 249–263). Vancouver: Press Gang Publishers.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2016). ABS releases standard for sex and gender variables. Retrieved from https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/latestProducts/1200.0.55.012Media%20Release12016
Australian Government. (2015). Australian government guidelines on the recognition of sex and gender. Retrieved from https://www.ag.gov.au/Publications/Documents/AustralianGovernmentGuidelinesontheRecognitionofSexandGender/AustralianGovernmentGuidelinesontheRecognitionofSexandGender.pdf
Benbow, C. P., & Stanley, J. (1980). Sex differences in mathematical ability: Facto or artefact? Science, 210, 1262–1264.
Butler, J. (1993). Bodies that matter: On the discursive limits of “sex.”. New York: Routledge.
Cameron, J. J., & Stinson, D. A. (2019). Gender (mis)measurement: Guidelines for respecting gender diversity in psychological research. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13(11), e12506. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12506.
Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities. St Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin.
Damarin, S. (1995). Gender and mathematics from a feminist standpoint. In W. G. Secada, E. Fennema, & L. B. Adajian (Eds.), New directions for equity in mathematics education (pp. 242–257). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Damarin, S., & Erchick, D. B. (2010). Towards clarifying the meanings of “gender” in mathematics education research. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 41(4), 310–323.
Dubbs, C. (2016). A queer turn in mathematics education research: Centering the experience of marginalized queer students. In M. B. Wood, E. E. Turner, M. Civil, & J. A. Eli (Eds.), Proceedings of the 38th annual meeting of the North American Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (pp. 1041–1048). Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED583735.pdf.
Eccles, J., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1985). Self-perceptions, task perceptions, socializing influences, and the decision to enroll in mathematics. In S. F. Chipman, L. R. Brush, & D. M. Wilson (Eds.), Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation (pp. 95–121). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (2010). Cross-national patterns of gender differences in mathematics: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 103–127.
Fennema, E. (1974). Mathematics learning and the sexes: A review. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 5(3), 126–139.
Fennema, E., & Peterson, P. (1985). Autonomous learning behavior: A possible explanation of gender-related differences in mathematics. In L. C. Wilkinson & C. B. Marrett (Eds.), Gender related differences in classroom interaction (pp. 17–35). New York, NY: Academic Press.
GenderNexus. (2020). FAQ: Understanding transgender and nonbinary people. https://gendernexus.org/resources/gender-diversity-faq/
Healthline. (n.d.). 64 terms that describe gender identity and expression. Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health/different-genders
Human Dignity Trust. (2020). Map of countries that criminalise LGBT people. Retrieved from https://www.humandignitytrust.org/lgbt-the-law/map-of-criminalisation/?type_filter=crim_lgbt
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Progress in International Reading and Literacy Study (PIRLS), International Reading and Literacy Study International Study Centre. (n.d.). Student achievement. Trends in mathematics achievement by gender. Retrieved from http://timss2015.org/timss-2015/mathematics/student-achievement/trends-in-mathematics-achievement-by-gender/
Killerman, S. (2020). Comprehensive* list of LGBTQ+ vocabulary definitions. Retrieved from https://www.itspronouncedmetrosexual.com/2013/01/a-comprehensive-list-of-lgbtq-term-definitions/
Leder, G. C. (1992). Mathematics and gender: Changing perspectives. In D. A. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 597–622). New York, NY: Macmillan.
Leyva, L. A. (2017). Unpacking the male superiority myth and masculinization at the intersections: A review of research on gender in mathematics education. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 48(4), 397–433.
Lindqvist, A., Sendén, M. G., & Renström, E. A. (2020). What is gender, anyway: a review of the options for operationalising gender. Psychology & Sexuality. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2020.1729844.
Ma, X. (2007). Gender differences in learning outcomes. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2008, Education for All by 2015: Will we make it? Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000155593
Meinck, S., & Brese, F. (2019). Trends in gender gaps: Using 20 years of evidence from TIMSS. Large-scale Assessments in Education, 7, Article No. 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-019-0076-3.
Mendick, H. (2006). Masculinities in mathematics. Berkshire, England: Open University Press.
Minitab blog editor. (2015). Choosing between a nonparametric test and a parametric test. Retrieved from https://blog.minitab.com/blog/adventures-in-statistics-2/choosing-between-a-nonparametric-test-and-a-parametric-test
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2016). PISA 2015 results (Vol. I): Excellence and equity in education. Paris: Author. Retrieved from https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264266490-en.pdf?expires=1585472398&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=2203998A971B41E05832D5AFBB5A7E2D.
Office for National Statistics. (n.d.). Guidance for questions on sex, gender identity and sexual orientation for the 2019 census rehearsal for the 2021 census. Retrieved from https://www.ons.gov.uk/census/censustransformationprogramme/questiondevelopment/genderidentity/guidanceforquestionsonsexgenderidentityandsexualorientationforthe2019censusrehearsalforthe2021census
Reyes, L. H., & Stanic, G. M. A. (1988). Race, sex, socioeconomic status and mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 19(1), 26–43.
Statistics Canada. (2019a). Gender of person. https://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p3Var.pl?Function=DEC&Id=410445
Statistics Canada. (2019b). Sex and gender. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/road2021-chemin2021/fs-fi/sex-and-gender.cfm
Statistics Canada. (2019c). Sex of person. https://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p3Var.pl?Function=DEC&Id=24101
Statistics Solutions. (2020). The assumption of homogeneity of variance. Retrieved from https://www.statisticssolutions.com/the-assumption-ofhomogeneity-of-variance/
Thomson, S., De Bortoli, L., & Underwood, C. (2017a). PISA 2015: Reporting Australia’s results. Camberwell, Vic: Australian Council for Educational Research. Retrieved from https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&context=ozpisa
Thomson, S.,Wernert, N., O’Grady, E., & Rodrigues, S. (2017b). TIMSS 2015. Reporting Australia’s results. Camberwell, Vic: Australian Council for Educational Research. Retrieved from https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=timss_2015
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.). National Institutes of Health. Sexual & Gender Minority Research Office. Retrieved from https://dpcpsi.nih.gov/sgmro
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority. (n.d.-a). Administrative information: Schools and providers. Retrieved from https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Documents/handbook/2019/adhb19_section4.docx
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority. (n.d.-b). Senior secondary certificate statistical information 2019. Retrieved from https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/administration/research-and-statistics/performance-senior-secondary/Pages/2019/Section1.aspx
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority. (2017). VCE and VCAL administrative handbook 2018. https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Documents/handbook/2018/adhb18_FA2.pdf
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority. (2019). VCE and VCAL administrative handbook 2020. https://vcaa.vic.edu.au/Documents/handbook/2020/VCEVCALAdminHandbook2020.pdf
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Forgasz, H. Gender: A dilemma for large-scale studies in mathematics education. Math Ed Res J 33, 631–640 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-020-00353-8
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-020-00353-8