Abstract
Tornadoes are incredibly powerful and destructive natural events, yet the microphysical characteristics of the parent storm and its effects on tornadogenesis remain unclear. This study analyzed polarization radar data of a tornadic supercell that occurred in Jiangsu Province of China on 14 May 2021, in comparison with another tornadic supercell and two non-tornadic supercells that occurred in the same region in 2023. The two tornadic supercells exhibited lower differential reflectivity (ZDR) in the hook echo region compared with the non-tornadic supercells, indicating smaller median drop sizes. A distinct increase in ZDR from the melting of frozen hydrometeors, observed between 2.5- and 4.0-km altitude in the non-tornadic storms, was absent in the tornadic cases. The non-tornadic supercells also displayed substantially higher specific differential phase (KDP) below the melting level, likely aroused from enhanced melting and cooling. These findings suggest fundamental microphysical contrasts between tornadic and non-tornadic supercells. Specifically, tornadic supercells have smaller droplets and may reduce melting in hook echoes. Moreover, greater separation between the ZDR arc and the KDP foot was observed during tornadogenesis. The vertical gradient of KDP related to the cooling pool strength of the hook echo, regulating rear-flank downdraft thermodynamics. Despite the limited number of cases investigated, the findings of this study indicate that monitoring ZDR, KDP, and drop size distribution trends could assist with tornado prediction and warnings.
References
Bringi, V. N., V. Chandrasekar, J. Hubbert, et al., 2003: Raindrop size distribution in different climatic regimes from disdrometer and dual-polarized radar analysis. J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 354–365, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0354:RSDIDC>2.0.CO;2.
Cao, Q., G. F. Zhang, E. Brandes, et al., 2008: Analysis of video disdrometer and polarimetric radar data to characterize rain microphysics in Oklahoma. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 47, 2238–2255, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JAMC1732.1.
Carlin, J. T., and A. V. Ryzhkov, 2019: Estimation of melting-layer cooling rate from dual-polarization radar: Spectral bin model simulations. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 58, 1485–1508, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-18-0343.1.
Chen, G., K. Zhao, H. Huang, et al., 2021: Evaluating simulated raindrop size distributions and ice microphysical processes with polarimetric radar observations in a Meiyu front event over eastern China. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 126, e2020JD034511, doi: https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD034511.
Chen, J. Y., X. H. Cai, H. Y. Wang, et al., 2018: Tornado climatology of China. Int. J. Climatol., 38, 2478–2489, doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5369.
Davies-Jones, R., R. J. Trapp, and H. B. Bluestein, 2001: Tornadoes and tornadic storms. Severe Convective Storms, C. A. Doswell III, ed., American Meteorological Society, Boston, 167–221, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-935704-06-5_5.
Dolan, B., S. A. Rutledge, S. Lim, et al., 2013: A robust C-band hydrometeor identification algorithm and application to a long-term polarimetric radar dataset. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 52, 2162–2186, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-12-0275.1.
Fan, W. J., and X. D. Yu, 2015: Characteristics of spatial temporal distribution of tornadoes in China. Meteor. Mon., 41, 793–805. (in Chinese)
French, M. M., D. W. Burgess, E. R. Mansell, et al., 2015: Bulk hook echo raindrop sizes retrieved using mobile, polarimetric Doppler radar observations. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 54, 423–450, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-14-0171.1.
Friedrich, K., E. A. Kalina, F. J. Masters, et al., 2013: Drop-size distributions in thunderstorms measured by optical disdrometers during VORTEX2. Mon. Wea. Rev., 141, 1182–1203, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-12-00116.1.
Homeyer, C. R., T. N. Sandmæl, C. K. Potvin, et al., 2020: Distinguishing characteristics of tornadic and nontornadic supercell storms from composite mean analyses of radar observations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 148, 5015–5040, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-20-0136.1.
Jackson, R., S. Collis, T. Lang, et al., 2020: PyDDA: A Pythonic direct data assimilation framework for wind retrievals. J. Open Res. Software, 8, 20, doi: https://doi.org/10.5334/jors.264.
Klemp, J. B., and R. Rotunno, 1983: A study of the tornadic region within a supercell thunderstorm. J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 359–377, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1983)040<0359:asottr>2.0.co;2.
Kumjian, M. R., 2011: Precipitation properties of supercell hook echoes. Electron. J. Severe Storms Meteor., 6, 1–21, doi:https://doi.org/10.55599/ejssm.v6i5.32.
Kumjian, M. R., and A. V. Ryzhkov, 2008: Polarimetric signatures in supercell thunderstorms. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 47, 1940–1961, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JAMC1874.1.
Kumjian, M. R., and A. V. Ryzhkov, 2009: Storm-relative helicity revealed from polarimetric radar measurements. J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 667–685, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JAS2815.1.
Kumjian, M. R., and A. V. Ryzhkov, 2010: The impact of evaporation on polarimetric characteristics of rain: Theoretical model and practical implications. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 49, 1247–1267, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAMC2243.1.
Kumjian, M. R., Z. J. Lebo, and H. C. Morrison, 2015: On the mechanisms of rain formation in an idealized supercell storm. Mon. Wea. Rev., 143, 2754–2773, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-14-00402.1.
Kumjian, M. R., Z. J. Lebo, and A. M. Ward, 2019: Storms producing large accumulations of small hail. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 58, 341–364, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/jamc-d-18-0073.1.
Lai, R. Z., X. T. Liu, S. Hu, et al., 2022: Raindrop size distribution characteristic differences during the dry and wet seasons in South China. Atmos. Res., 266, 105947, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2021.105947.
Lemon, L. R., and C. A. Doswell III, 1979: Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 1184–1197, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2.
Loeffler, S. D., and M. R. Kumjian, 2020: Idealized model simulations to determine impacts of storm-relative winds on differential reflectivity and specific differential phase fields. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 125, e2020JD033870, doi: https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD033870.
Loeffler, S. D., M. R. Kumjian, M. Jurewicz, et al., 2020: Differentiating between tornadic and nontornadic supercells using polarimetric radar signatures of hydrometeor size sorting. Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, e2020GL088242, doi: https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL088242.
Loeffler, S. D., M. R. Kumjian, P. M. Markowski, et al., 2023: Investigating the relationship between polarimetric radar signatures of hydrometeor size sorting and tornadic potential in simulated supercells. Mon. Wea. Rev., 151, 1863–1884, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-22-0228.1.
Markowski, P. M., 2002: Hook echoes and rear-flank downdrafts: A review. Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 852–876, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2.
Markowski, P. M., and Y. P. Richardson, 2014: The influence of environmental low-level shear and cold pools on tornadogenesis: Insights from idealized simulations. J. Atmos. Sci., 71, 243–275, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-13-0159.1.
Markowski, P. M., and Y. P. Richardson, 2017: Large sensitivity of near-surface vertical vorticity development to heat sink location in idealized simulations of supercell-like storms. J. Atmos. Sci., 74, 1095–1104, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-16-0372.1.
Markowski, P. M., J. M. Straka, and E. N. Rasmussen, 2002: Direct surface thermodynamic observations within the rear-flank downdrafts of nontornadic and tornadic supercells. Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 1692–1721, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<1692:DSTOWT>2.0.CO;2.
Meng, Z. Y., L. Q. Bai, M. R. Zhang, et al., 2018: The deadliest tornado (EF4) in the past 40 years in China. Wea. Forecasting, 33, 693–713, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-17-0085.1.
Pinsky, M., and A. Khain, 1997: Formation of inhomogeneity in drop concentration induced by the inertia of drops falling in a turbulent flow, and the influence of the inhomogeneity on the drop-spectrum broadening. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 123, 165–186, doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49712353707.
Rosenfeld, D., and C. W. Ulbrich, 2003: Cloud microphysical properties, processes, and rainfall estimation opportunities. Radar and Atmospheric Science: A Collection of Essays in Honor of David Atlas, R. M. Wakimoto, and R. Srivastava, Eds., American Meteorological Society, Boston, 237–258, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-878220-36-3_10.
Ryzhkov, A. V., T. J. Schuur, D. W. Burgess, et al., 2005: Polarimetric tornado detection. J. Appl. Meteor., 44, 557–570, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/JAM2235.1.
Schultz, D. M., Y. P. Richardson, P. M. Markowski, et al., 2014: Tornadoes in the central United States and the “clash of air masses”. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 95, 1704–1712, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00252.1.
Schuur, T. J., A. V. Ryzhkov, D. S. Zrnić, et al., 2001: Drop size distributions measured by a 2D video disdrometer: Comparison with dual-polarization radar data. J. Appl. Meteor., 40, 1019–1034, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2001)040<1019:DSDMBA>2.0.CO;2.
Tanamachi, R. L., H. B. Bluestein, J. B. Houser, et al., 2012: Mobile, X-band, polarimetric Doppler radar observations of the 4 May 2007 Greensburg, Kansas, tornadic supercell. Mon. Wea. Rev., 140, 2103–2125, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-11-00142.1.
Tuftedal, K. S., M. M. French, D. M. Kingfield, et al., 2021: Observed bulk hook echo drop size distribution evolution in supercell tornadogenesis and tornadogenesis failure. Mon. Wea. Rev., 149, 2539–2557, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-20-0353.1.
Van Den Broeke, M. S., 2020: A preliminary polarimetric radar comparison of pretornadic and nontornadic supercell storms. Mon. Wea. Rev., 148, 1567–1584, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-19-0296.1.
Wang, B. Y., M. Wei, W. Hua, et al., 2017: Characteristics and possible formation mechanisms of severe storms in the outer rainbands of Typhoon Mujiga (1522). J. Meteor. Res., 31, 612–624, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13351-017-6043-4.
Wen, L., K. Zhao, G. Chen, et al., 2018: Drop size distribution characteristics of seven typhoons in China. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 123, 6529–6548, doi: https://doi.org/10.1029/2017JD027950.
Wen, L., K. Zhao, G. F. Zhang, et al., 2016: Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distributions observed in East China during the Asian summer monsoon season using 2-D video disdrometer and Micro Rain Radar data. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 121, 2265–2282, doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD024160.
Wurman, J., D. Dowell, Y. Richardson, et al., 2012: The second verification of the origins of rotation in tornadoes experiment: VORTEX2. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 93, 1147–1170, doi: https://doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-11-00010.1.
Yang, Z. L., K. Zhao, K. Xu, et al., 2019: Microphysical characteristics of extreme convective precipitation over the Yangtze-Huaihe River basin during the Meiyu season based on polarimetric radar data. Acta Meteor. Sinica, 77, 58–72, doi: https://doi.org/10.11676/qxxb2018.040. (in Chinese)
Yao, D., H. L. Xue, J. F. Yin, et al., 2018: Investigation into the formation, structure, and evolution of an EF4 tornado in East China using a high-resolution numerical simulation. J. Meteor. Res., 32, 157–171, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13351-018-7083-0.
Yao, Y. Q., X. D. Yu, Y. J. Zhang, et al., 2015: Climate analysis of tornadoes in China. J. Meteor. Res., 29, 359–369, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13351-015-4983-0.
Yu, X. D., and Y. G. Zheng, 2020: Advances in severe convection research and operation in China. J. Meteor. Res., 34, 189–217, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13351-020-9875-2.
Yuan, C., S. G. Wang, X. Y. Ma, et al., 2021: Environmental background and formative mechanisms of a tornado occurred in Kaiyuan on 3 July 2019. Plateau Meteor., 40, 384–393, doi: https://doi.org/10.7522/j.issn.1000-0534.2020.00061. (in Chinese)
Yuan, C., D. Q. Li, L. Yang, et al., 2022: A case study on the radar characteristics and physical process involved in the genesis of a mini supercell tornado under the background of cold vortex. Acta Meteor. Sinica, 80, 878–895, doi: https://doi.org/10.11676/qxxb2022.063. (in Chinese)
Zhang, G., J. Vivekanandan, and E. Brandes, 2001: A method for estimating rain rate and drop size distribution from polarime tric radar measurements. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 39, 830–841, doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/36.917906.
Zheng, Y. G., F. F. Liu, and H. J. Zhang, 2021: Advances in tornado research in China. Meteor. Mon., 47, 1319–1335, doi: https://doi.org/10.7519/j.issn.1000-0526.2021.11.002. (in Chinese)
Zhi, J. L., X. X. Huang, L. Q. Bai, et al., 2022: Characteristics of tornado activity and disaster of China in 2021. Adv. Meteor. Sci. Technol., 12, 26–36, doi: https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.2095-1973.2022.01.004. (in Chinese)
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our gratitude to the editors and reviewers for their constructive feedback and suggestions, which significantly improved the quality of the manuscript. We are also grateful to our collaborators for their guidance and support. Additionally, we would like to thank James Buxton MSc, who kindly assisted in editing the language.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42305013), Joint Research Project for Meteorological Capacity Improvement (23NLTSQ002), China Meteorological Administration Tornado Key Laboratory Fund (TKL202307), China Meteorological Administration Youth Innovation Team Fund (CMA2024QN05), and China Meteorological Administration Special Innovation and Development Program (CXFZ2022J003 and CXFZ2022J059).
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Yuan, C., Bai, Y., Sun, P. et al. Microphysical Insights into a Tornadic Supercell from Dual-Polarization Radar Observations in Jiangsu, China on 14 May 2021. J Meteorol Res 38, 303–320 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13351-024-3102-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13351-024-3102-5