Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Assessing national human footprint and implications for biodiversity conservation in Iran

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Ambio Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Recent global-scale studies have revealed intense levels of human activities within many protected areas worldwide. However, these analyses rely on coarse global-scale data, making their utility for informing local-scale conservation action limited. We developed a spatially explicit national human footprint index for Iran, a biologically diverse country in west Asia, based on the latest high-resolution datasets available for human pressures. We assessed the extent and intensity of human pressure within Iranian protected areas, and across the biomes and ecoregions of Iran. We found that almost one-quarter (22%) of officially protected land was under intense human pressure, mostly located in north-west and west of the country. Protected areas within temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands are most impacted, with two-third of their area under intense pressure. The findings provide valuable information for targeting management strategies to alleviate human pressures within protected areas, and also act as a comprehensive database to track the state of protected areas through time.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Amanat, A. 2016. Environment and culture: An introduction. Iranian Studies 49: 925–941.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E., and C. Mammides. 2019. The role of protected areas in mitigating human impact in the world’s last wilderness areas. Ambio 48: 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balmford, A., A. Bruner, P. Cooper, R. Costanza, S. Farber, R.E. Green, M. Jenkins, P. Jefferiss, et al. 2002. Economic reasons for conserving wild nature. Science 297: 950–953.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Butchart, S.H.M., M. Walpole, B. Collen, A. Van Strien, J.P. Scharlemann, R.E. Almond, J.E. Baillie, B. Bomhard, et al. 2010. Global biodiversity: Indicators of recent declines. Science 328: 1164–1168.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ceballos, G.P.R., A.D. Ehrlich, A.D. Barnosky, A. García, R.M. Pringle, and T.M. Palmer. 2015. Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction. Science Advances 1: e1400253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, B.M., J.A. Sayer, and B. Walker. 2010. Navigating trade-offs: Working for conservation and development outcomes. Ecology and Society 15: 16–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chauvenet, A.L., and M. Barnes. 2016. Expanding protected areas is not enough. Science 353: 551–552.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Convention on Biological Diversity. 2010. COP 10 decision X/2: strategic plan for biodiversity 2011–2020. 10th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Nagoya, Japan.

  • Darvishsefat, A.A. 2006. Atlas of protected areas of Iran. Tehran: University of Tehran.

    Google Scholar 

  • Di Marco, M., O. Venter, H.P. Possingham, and J.E. Watson. 2018. Changes in human footprint drive changes in species extinction risk. Nature Communications 9: 4621.

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Environment of Iran. 2016. Revised National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plan (NBSAP2) 2016–2030, Deputy for Natural Environment and Biodiversity, Department of Environment of Iran.

  • Department of Environment of Iran. 2019. The list of protected areas. Retrieved from 30 August 2019 https://www.doe.ir/Portal/home/.

  • Di Giulio, M., R. Holderegger, and S. Tobias. 2009. Effects of habitat and landscape fragmentation on humans and biodiversity in densely populated landscapes. Journal of Environmental Management 90: 2959–2968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dirzo, R., and P.H. Raven. 2003. Global state of biodiversity and loss. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28: 137–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dudley, N., S. Stolton, and P. Shadie. 2008. Guidelines for applying protected area management categories. Norwich: IUCN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elvidge, C.D., M.L. Imhoff, K.E. Baugh, V.R. Hobson, I. Nelson, J. Safran, J.B. Dietzand, and B.T. Tuttle. 2001. Night-time lights of the world: 1994–1995. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 56: 81–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. 2019a. Retrieved from 10 January 2019 https://ghsl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ghs_bu.php.

  • European Commission. 2019b. Retrieved from 10 January 2019 https://ghsl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ghs_pop.php.

  • European Space Agency. 2015. Retrieved from 10 January 2018 https://www.esa-landcover-cci.org/.

  • Farhadinia, M.S., L.T. Hunter, A. Jourabchian, F. Hosseini-Zavarei, H. Akbari, H. Ziaie, G.B. Schaller, and H. Jowkar. 2017. The critically endangered Asiatic cheetah Acinonyx jubatus venaticus in Iran: a review of recent distribution, and conservation status. Biodiversity and Conservation 26: 1027–1046.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geldmann, J., M. Barnes, L. Coad, I.D. Craigie, M. Hockings, and N.D. Burgess. 2013. Effectiveness of terrestrial protected areas in reducing habitat loss and population declines. Biological Conservation 161: 230–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geldmann, J., L.N. Joppa, and N.D. Burgess. 2014. Mapping change in human pressure globally on land and within protected areas. Conservation Biology 28: 1604–1616.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, M., G. Nicolas, G. Cinardi, T.P. Van Boeckel, S.O. Vanwambeke, G.W. Wint, and T.P. Robinson. 2018. Global distribution data for cattle, buffaloes, horses, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens and ducks in 2010. Scientific Data 5: 180227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halpern, B.S., S. Walbridge, K.A. Selkoe, C.V. Kappel, F. Micheli, C. D'Agrosa, J.F. Bruno, K.S. Casey, et al. 2008. A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems. Science 319: 948–952.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, M., E. Dinerstein, J. Hoekstra, and D. Lindenmayer. 2010. A call to action for conserving biological diversity in the face of climate change. Conservation Biology 24: 1169–1171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jowkar, H., S. Ostrowski, M. Tahbaz, and P. Zahler. 2016. The conservation of biodiversity in Iran: threats, challenges and hopes. Iranian Studies 49: 1065–1077.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, K.R., O. Venter, R.A. Fuller, J.R. Allan, S.L. Maxwell, P.J. Negret, and J.E. Watson. 2018. One-third of global protected land is under intense human pressure. Science 360: 788–791.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karami, M., T. Ghadierian, and K. Faizolahi. 2016. The atlas of mammals of Iran. Kharazmi, Karaj: Jahad Daneshgahi. (In Farsi and English).

    Google Scholar 

  • Karimi, A., A.I. Tulloch, G. Brown, and M. Hockings. 2017. Understanding the effects of different social data on selecting priority conservation areas. Conservation Biology 31: 1439–1449.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuriqi, A., A. Pinheiro, A. Sordo-Ward, and L. Garrote. 2017. Trade-off between environmental flow policy and run-of-river hydropower generation in Mediterranean climate. European Water 60: 123–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, S., J. Wu, J. Gong, and S. Li. 2018. Human footprint in Tibet: Assessing the spatial layout and effectiveness of nature reserves. Science of the Total Environment 621: 18–29.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MEA. 2003. Millennium ecosystem assessment (MA): Strengthening capacity to manage ecosystems sustainably for human well-being. Washington: World Resources Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newbold, T., L.N. Hudson, S.L. Hill, S. Contu, I. Lysenko, R.A. Senior, L. Börger, D.J. Bennett, et al. 2015. Global effects of land use on local terrestrial biodiversity. Nature 520: 45.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • NIMA. 1997. National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), Vector Map Level 0 (VMAP0). Washington, DC: NIMA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noroozi, J., H. Akhani, and S.W. Breckle. 2008. Biodiversity and phytogeography of the alpine flora of Iran. Biodiversity and Conservation 17: 493–521.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, D.M., E. Dinerstein, E.D. Wikramanayake, N.D. Burgess, G.V.N. Powell, E.C. Underwood, J.A. D’amico, I. Itoua, et al. 2001. Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: A new map of life on Earth. Bioscience 51: 933–938.

    Google Scholar 

  • Open Street Map. Street Map of Iran. 2017. Retrieved from 1 October 2018 https://www.openstreetmap.org/export#map=1/-28/139.

  • Pringle, R.M. 2017. Upgrading protected areas to conserve wild biodiversity. Nature 546: 91.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rands, M.R., W.M. Adams, L. Bennun, S.H. Butchart, A. Clements, D. Coomes, A. Entwistle, I. Hodge, et al. 2010. Biodiversity conservation: Challenges beyond 2010. Science 329: 1298–1303.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodrigues, A.S., S.J. Andelman, M.I. Bakarr, L. Boitani, T.M. Brooks, R.M. Cowling, L.D. Fishpool, G.A. Da Fonseca, et al. 2004. Effectiveness of the global protected area network in representing species diversity. Nature 428: 640.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanderson, E.W., M. Jaiteh, M.A. Levy, K.H. Redford, A.V. Wannebo, and G. Woolmer. 2002. The human footprint and the last of the wild: the human footprint is a global map of human influence on the land surface, which suggests that human beings are stewards of nature, whether we like it or not. AIBS Bulletin 52: 891–904.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sayer, J., T. Sunderland, J. Ghazoul, J.L. Pfund, D. Sheil, E. Meijaard, M. Venter, A.K. Boedhihartono, et al. 2013. Ten principles for a landscape approach to reconciling agriculture, conservation, and other competing land uses. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110: 8349–8356.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sloan, S., and J.A. Sayer. 2015. Forest resources assessment of 2015 shows positive global trends but forest loss and degradation persist in poor tropical countries. Forest Ecology and Management 352: 134–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilman, D., M. Clark, D.R. Williams, K. Kimmel, S. Polasky, and C. Packer. 2017. Future threats to biodiversity and pathways to their prevention. Nature 546: 73.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, M.A., K. Böhning-Gaese, W.F. Fagan, J.M. Fryxell, B. Van Moorter, S.C. Alberts, A.H. Ali, A.M. Allen, et al. 2018. Moving in the anthropocene: Global reductions in terrestrial mammalian movements. Science 359: 466–469.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • UN WCMC. 2017. International Union for Conservation of Nature, World Database on Protected Areas, Retrieved from 10 April 2019 http://www.protectedplanet.net/.

  • UN WCMC. 2019. UN environment World Conservation for Monitoring Center. Retrieved from 1 September 2019 https://livereport.protectedplanet.net/chapter-2.

  • Venter, O., E.W. Sanderson, A. Magrach, J.R. Allan, J. Beher, K.P. Jones, H.P. Possingham, W.F. Laurance, P. Wood, et al. 2016. Sixteen years of change in the global terrestrial human footprint and implications for biodiversity conservation. Nature Communications 7: 12558.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, J.E., N. Dudley, D.B. Segan, and M. Hockings. 2014. The performance and potential of protected areas. Nature 515: 67.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woolmer, G., S.C. Trombulak, J.C. Ray, P.J. Doran, M.G. Anderson, R.F. Baldwin, A. Morgan, and E.W. Sanderson. 2008. Rescaling the human footprint: a tool for conservation planning at an ecoregional scale. Landscape and Urban Planning 87: 42–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zehzad, B., B.H. Kiabi, and H. Madjnoonian. 2002. The natural areas and landscape of Iran: an overview. Zoology in the Middle East 26: 7–10.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for technical support from the Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environment, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, 9177948974, Iran

    Azadeh Karimi

  2. Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, Bronx, NY, 10460, USA

    Kendall Jones

Authors
  1. Azadeh Karimi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kendall Jones
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Azadeh Karimi.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (PDF 843 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Karimi, A., Jones, K. Assessing national human footprint and implications for biodiversity conservation in Iran. Ambio 49, 1506–1518 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01305-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01305-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation