Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Lead poisoning from ingestion of fishing gear: A review

  • Lead Use in Hunting
  • Published:
Ambio Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Many publications have investigated the ingestion and toxicity of metallic lead from hunting and the shooting sports. However, there is limited literature on toxicity associated with the ingestion of lead fishing weights, despite our knowledge of damage caused to many species from entanglement in lines, nets, and fish-hooks. This paper surveys current knowledge of species poisoned by ingestion of lead fishing gear and the types of gear that have been implicated. We review the impacts of lead fishing tackle on wildlife species and human health and describe the efficacy of efforts to reduce the use of lead tackle through voluntary, educational, and regulatory approaches to encourage adoption of non-toxic fishing gear. The authors emphasize the need for further research and policy initiatives to deal with this serious problem.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, W.L., S.P. Havera, and B.W. Zercher. 2000. Ingestion of lead and nontoxic shotgun pellets by ducks in the Mississippi Flyway. Journal of Wildlife Management 64: 848–857.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnemo, J.M., O. Andersen, S. Stokke, V.G. Thomas, O. Krone, D.J. Pain, and R. Mateo. 2016. Health and environmental risks from lead-based ammunition: Science versus socio-politics. EcoHealth 13: 618–622.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, D.V., N. Odin, and E. Torres. 1985. Accumulation of angling litter at game and coarse fisheries in South Wales, UK. Biological Conservation 34: 369–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bengfort, J., and R.W. Carithers. 1976. Lead poisoning in dogs. Iowa State University Veterinarian, 38. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/iowastate_veterinarian/vol38/iss3/4.

  • Binkowski, L.J. 2017. The influence of environmental conditions on lead transfer from spent gunshot to sediments and water: Other routes for Pb poisoning. Chemosphere 187: 330–337.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Birkhead, M. 1982. Causes of mortality in the mute swan, Cygnus olor, on the River Thames. Journal of Zoology 198: 15–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Birkhead, M. 1983. Lead levels in the blood of mute swans, Cygnus olor, on the River Thames. Journal of Zoology 199: 59–73.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blakley, B.R. 2019. Overview of lead poisoning. Merck Veterinary Manual (online). https://www.merckvetmanual.com/toxicology/lead-poisoning/overview-of-lead-poisoning

  • Blus, L.J. 1994. A review of lead poisoning in swans. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C 108: 259–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blus, L.J., R.K. Stroud, B. Reiswig, and T. McEneaney. 1989. Lead poisoning and other mortality factors in trumpeter swans. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 8: 263–271.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borkowski, R. 1997. Lead poisoning and intestinal perforations in a snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) due to fishing gear ingestion. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 28: 109–113.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, J.E., and S.A. Petrie. 2007. Incidence of artifact ingestion in mute swans and tundra swans on the Lower Great Lakes, Canada. Ardea 95: 135–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M.J., E. Linton, and E.C. Rees. 1992. Causes of mortality among wild swans in Britain. Wildfowl 43: 70–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J., and M. Gochfeld. 1994. Behavioral impairments of lead-injected young herring gulls in nature. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 23: 553–561.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ciaranca, M.A., C.C. Allin, and G.S. Jones. 1997. Mute swan (Cygnus olor), version 2.0. In The Birds of North America, eds. A.F. Poole and F.B. Gill. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Lab of Ornithology. https://doi.org/10.2173/bna.273.

  • CLLS (Canadian Lakes Loon Survey). 2019. The Canadian lakes loon survey: Science for lake and loon conservation. https://www.birdscanada.org/volunteer/clls/resources/CLLSBrochure.pdf.

  • Cole, J.B., S.J. Stellpflug, A. Karpas, and D.J. Roberts. 2010. Ingestion of one lead fishing sinker resulting in toxic lead levels within hours [abstract]. Clinical Toxicology 48: 622.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, R.S., and D.O. Trainer. 1966. Experimental lead poisoning of Canada geese. Journal of Wildlife Management 30: 1–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cryer, M., J.J. Corbett, and M.D. Winterbotham. 1987. The deposition of hazardous litter by anglers at coastal and inland fisheries in South Wales. Journal of Environmental Management 25: 125–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danish EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 2014. Report on lead fishing gear sales in Denmark. Copenhagen, DK: Ministry of Environment and Food of Denmark. https://mst.dk/service/nyheder/nyhedsarkiv/2014/maj/miljoestyrelsen-paa-jagt-efter-bly-i-fiskegrej/

  • Daoust, P.-Y., G. Conboy, S. McBurney, and N. Burgess. 1998. Interactive mortality factors in common loons from Maritime Canada. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 34: 524–531.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Francisco, O.N., D. Feeney, A.G. Armién, A. Wuenschmann, and P.T. Redig. 2016. Correlation of brain magnetic resonance imaging of spontaneously lead poisoned bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) with histological lesions: A pilot study. Research in Veterinary Science 105: 236–242.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Degernes, L.A., S. Heilman, M. Trogdon, M. Jordan, M. Davison, D. Kraege, M. Correa, and P. Cowen. 2006. Epidemiologic investigation of lead poisoning in trumpeter and tundra swans in Washington state, USA, 2000–2002. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42: 345–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeGroot, J., and L. Steg. 2007. Value orientations and environmental beliefs in five countries: Validity of an instrument to measure egoistic, altruistic, and biospheric value orientations. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 38: 318–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duerr, A.E. 1999. Abundance of lost and discarded fishing tackle and implications for waterbird populations in the United States. MS Thesis. Tucson, AZ: Univ. of Arizona. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/278698.

  • Ensor, K.L., D.D. Helwig, and L.C. Wemmer. 1992. Mercury and lead in Minnesota common loons (Gavia immer). St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Pollution Control Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • ECCC. 2018. Study to gather use pattern information on lead sinkers and jigs and their non-lead alternatives in Canada. Gatineau, QC: Prepared by ToxEcology Environmental Consulting Ltd. for Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC). https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/management-toxic-substances/list-canadian-environmental-protection-act/lead/using-more-lead-free-fishing-tackle.html.

  • ECHA. 2018. A review of the available information on lead in shot used in terrestrial environments, in ammunition and in fishing tackle. Helsinki, Finland: European Chemicals Agency, Annex XV Investigation report. https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13641/lead_ammunition_investigation_report_en.pdf/efdc0ae4-c7be-ee71-48a3-bb8abe20374a.

  • Ecke, F., N.J. Singh, J.M. Arnemo, A. Bignert, B. Helander, A.M.M. Berglund, H. Borg, C. Bröjer, et al. 2017. Sublethal lead exposure alters movement behavior in free-ranging golden eagles. Environmental Science and Technology 51: 5729–5736.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. 2004. Advantages and drawbacks of restricting the marketing and use of lead in ammunition, fishing sinkers and candle wicks. European Commission Enterprise Directorate-General COWI CONTRACT NUMBER – ETD/FIF.20030756 Final Report.

  • Evers, D.C., J.D. Paruk, J.W. McIntyre, and J.F. Barr. 2010. Common loon (Gavia immer). No. 313. The Birds of North America Online, ed. A Poole. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/313.

  • Finley, M.T., M.P. Dieter, and L.N. Locke. 1976. Lead in tissues of mallard ducks dosed with two types of lead shot. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 16: 261–269.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forbes, I.J. 1986. The quantity of lead shot, nylon fishing line and other litter discarded at a coarse fishing lake. Biological Conservation 38: 21–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franson, J.C., and D.J. Cliplef. 1992. Causes of mortality in common loons. In Proceedings from the 1992 conference on the loon and its ecosystem: Status, management, and environmental concerns, ed. L. Morse, S. Stockwell, and M. Pokras, 2–12. Concord, NH: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franson, J.C., S.P. Hansen, M.A. Pokras, and R. Miconi. 2001. Size characteristics of stones ingested by common loons. Condor 103: 189–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franson, J.C., S.P. Hansen, T.E. Creekmore, C.J. Brand, D.C. Evers, A.E. Duerr, and S. DeStefano. 2003. Lead fishing weights and other fishing tackle in selected waterbirds. Waterbirds 26: 345–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fulton, D.C., M.J. Mangredo, and J. Lipscomb. 1996. Wildlife value orientations: A conceptual and measurement approach. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 1: 24–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galili, E., A. Zemer, and B. Rosen. 2013. Ancient fishing gear and associated artifacts from underwater explorations in Israel—A comparative study. Archaeofauna 22: 145–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goode, D.A. (ed). 1981. Lead poisoning in swans. Report of the Nature Conservancy Council’s Working Group.

  • Grade, T.J. 2011. Effects of lead fishing tackle on common loons (Gavia immer) in New Hampshire, 1989–2010. MS Thesis. Madison, WI: Univ. of Wisconsin.

  • Grade, T.J., M.A. Pokras, E.M. LaFlamme, and H.S. Vogel. 2018. Population-level effects of lead fishing tackle on common loons. Journal of Wildlife Management 82: 155–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, C.E., J.D. Paruk, C.R. DeSorbo, L.J. Savoy, D.E. Yates, M.D. Chickering, R.B. Gray, K.M. Taylor, et al. 2014. Body mass in common loons (Gavia immer) strongly associated with migration distance. Waterbirds 37 (sp1): 64–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gummin, D.D., J.B. Mowry, D.A. Spyker, D.E. Brooks, M.O. Fraser, and W. Banner. 2017. 2016 Annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers’ national poison data system (NPDS): 34th annual report. Clinical Toxicology 55: 1072–1254. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2017.1388087.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haig, S.M., J. D’Elia, C. Eagles-Smith, J.M. Fair, J. Gervais, G. Herring, J.W. Rivers, and J.H. Schulz. 2014. The persistent problem of lead poisoning in birds from ammunition and fishing tackle. The Condor 116: 408–428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrigan, K. 1991. Causes of mortality of little penguins, Eudyptula minor, in Victoria. Emu-Austral Ornithology 91: 273–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Health Canada. 2013. Risk management strategy for lead. Ottawa, ON. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/migration/hc-sc/ewhsemt/alt_formats/pdf/pubs/contaminants/prms_lead-psgr_plomb/prms_lead-psgr_plomb-eng.pdf.

  • Hunter, B., and J.C. Haigh. 1978. Demyelinating peripheral neuropathy in a guinea hen associated with subacute lead intoxication. Avian Diseases 22: 344–349.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacks, G., M. Bystron, and L. Johansson. 2001. Lead emissions from lost fishing sinkers. Boreal Environment Research 6: 231–236.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Janssens, E., T. Dauwe, E. Van Duyse, J. Beernaert, R. Pinxten, and M. Eens. 2003. Effects of heavy metal exposure on aggressive behavior in a small territorial songbird. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 45: 0121–0127.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karstad, L. 1971. Angiopathy and cardiopathy in wild waterfowl from ingestion of lead shot. Connecticut Medicine 35: 355–360.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, A., and S. Kelly. 2004. Fishing tackle injury and blood lead levels in mute swans. Waterbirds 27: 60–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, A., and S. Kelly. 2005. Are mute swans with elevated blood lead levels more likely to collide with overhead power lines? Waterbirds 28: 331–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • KEMI. 2007. Lead in articles. Stockholm, SE: Reported by the Swedish Chemicals Agency and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Report 5/07. https://www.kemi.se/global/rapporter/2007/rapport-5-07-lead-in-articles.pdf.

  • Khan, H. 2014. Exposure of lead amongst primary school children in fishing communities in South Africa. MS Thesis. Univ. of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. http://146.141.12.21/bitstream/handle/10539/15464/MMed587333FINAL.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

  • Kirby, J., S. Delany, and J. Quinn. 1994. Mute swans in Great Britain: A review, current status, and long-term trends. Hydrobiologia 279: 467–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kneeland, M., and M. Pokras. 2008. Lead poisoning: Using transdisciplinary approaches to solve an ancient problem. EcoHealth 5: 379–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leszek, M. 2015. Changing angler behavior to reduce the impacts of lead fishing tackle in New Hampshire: Applied social science using community based social marketing. MS Thesis. Plymouth State University, Plymouth, NH.

  • Lloret, J., A. Garrote, N. Balasch, and T. Font. 2014. Estimating recreational fishing tackle loss in Mediterranean coastal areas: Potential impacts on wildlife. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management 17: 179–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Locke, L.N., S.M. Kerr, and D. Zoromski. 1982. Lead poisoning in common loons (Gavia immer). Avian Diseases 26: 392–396.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • LPC (Loon Preservation Committee). 2012. The efficacy of education to address loon mortality from ingested lead fishing tackle. Moultonborough, NH: Loon Preservation Committee.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, J.W., R. Goater, N.K. Atkinson, and J. Small. 1990. Further causes of death in Scottish swans, Cygnus olor. State Veterinary Journal 44: 81–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, S.C., R.D. Ribeiro, H.W. Mielke, M.E. Finkelstein, C.R. Gonzales, J.A. Jones, J. Komdeur, E. Derryberry, et al. 2019. Sub-lethal exposure to lead is associated with heightened aggression in an urban songbird. Science of the Total Environment 654: 593–603.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Metryka, E., K. Chibowska, I. Gutowska, A. Falkowska, P. Kupnicka, K. Barczak, and I. Baranowska-Bosiacka. 2018. Lead (Pb) exposure enhances expression of factors associated with inflammation. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 19: 1813. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19061813.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MCPA (Minnesota Pollution Control Agency). 2013. Toxics and pollution prevention evaluation report. St. Paul, MN. https://www.pca.state.mn.us/sites/default/files/lrp-p2s-2sy13.pdf.

  • Mowad, E., I. Haddad, and D.J. Gemmel. 1998. Management of lead poisoning from ingested fishing sinkers. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 152: 485–488.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Needleman, H.L. 2000. Human lead exposure. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newth, J.L., R.L. Cromie, M.J. Brown, R.J. Delahay, A.A. Meharg, C. Deacon, G.J. Norton, M.F. O’Brien, et al. 2013. Poisoning from lead gunshot: Still a threat to wild waterbirds in Britain. European Journal of Wildlife Research 59: 195–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newth, J.L., E.C. Rees, R.L. Cromie, R.A. McDonald, S. Bearhop, D.J. Pain, G.J. Norton, C. Deacon, et al. 2016. Widespread exposure to lead affects the body condition of free-living whooper swans Cygnus cygnus wintering in Britain. Environmental Pollution 209: 60–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.11.007.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nriagu, J.O. 1983. Lead & lead poisoning in antiquity. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell, M.M., E.C. Rees, Ó. Einarsson, C.J. Spray, S. Thorstensen, and J. O’Halloran. 2008. Blood lead levels in wintering and moulting Icelandic whooper swans over two decades. Journal of Zoology 276: 21–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, T. 1914. Lead poisoning: From the industrial, medical, and social points of view. New York: Paul B. Hoeber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olivero-Verbel, J., D. Duarte, M. Echenique, J. Guette, B. Johnson-Restrepo, and P.J. Parsons. 2007. Blood lead levels in children aged 5–9 years living in Cartagena, Colombia. Science of the Total Environment 372: 707–716.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Owen, M., and C.J. Cadbury. 1975. The ecology and mortality of swans at the Ouse Washes, England. Wildfowl 26: 31–42.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pain, D.J. 1991. Why are lead-poisoned waterfowl rarely seen?: The disappearance of waterfowl carcasses in the Camargue, France. Wildfowl 42: 118–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pattee, O.H., and D.J. Pain. 2003. Lead in the environment. In Handbook of ecotoxicology, 2nd ed, ed. D.J. Hoffman, B.A. Rattner, G.A. Burton Jr., and J. Cairns Jr. New York: Lewis Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennycott, T.W. 1999. Causes of mortality in mute swans Cygnus olor in Scotland 1995–1996. Wildfowl 50: 11–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrins, C.M., P. Martin, and B. Broughton. 2002. The impact of lost and discarded fishing line and tackle on mute swans. Bristol, UK: Environment Agency R&D Technical Report W1-051/TR.

  • Perry, C. 1994. Lead sinker ingestion in avian species. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Environmental Contamination Information Bulletin. 94-09-01, Arlington, VA.

  • Pokras, M.A., and R. Chafel. 1992. Lead toxicosis from ingested fishing sinkers in adult common loons (Gavia immer) in New England. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 23: 92–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pokras, M.A., M. Kneeland, A. Ludi, E. Golden, A. Major, R. Miconi, and R.H. Poppenga. 2009. Lead objects ingested by common loons in New England. Northeastern Naturalist 16: 177–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poleschook, D., and G. Gumm. 2009. Recommendation to ban the use of lead fishing tackle in Washington. Olympia, WA: Report to Washington Fish and Wildlife Commission.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radomski, P., T. Heinrich, T.S. Jones, P. Rivers, and P. Talmage. 2006. Estimates of tackle loss for five Minnesota walleye fisheries. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26: 206–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Redpath, A.M., R.J. Gutierrez, K.A. Wood, and J.C. Young. 2015. Conflicts in conservation: Navigating towards solutions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Reiger, J.F. 1975. American sportsmen and the origins of conservation. New York: Winchester Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross-Winslow, D.J., and T.L. Teel. 2011. The quest to eliminate lead from units of the National Park System: Understanding and reaching out to audiences. The George Wright Forum 28: 34–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sainsbury, A.W., J.L. Kirkwood, P.M. Bennett, and A.A. Cunningham. 2001. Status of wildlife health monitoring in the United Kingdom. Veterinary Record 148: 558–563.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sahmel, J., E.I. Hsu, H.J. Avens, E. Beckett, and K.D. Devlin. 2015. Estimation of hand-to-mouth transfer efficiency of lead. Annals of Work Exposures and Health 59: 210–220.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • St. Clair, W.S., and J. Benjamin. 2008. Lead intoxication from ingestion of fishing sinkers: A case study and review of the literature. Clinical Pediatrics 47: 66–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheuhammer, A.M. 2009. Historical perspective on the hazards of environmental lead from ammunition and fishing weights in Canada. In Ingestion of lead from spent ammunition: Implications for wildlife and humans, eds. R.T. Watson, M. Fuller, M. Pokras, and W.G. Hunt. Boise, ID: The Peregrine Fund. https://doi.org/10.4080/ilsa.2009.0105.

  • Scheuhammer, A.M., S.L. Money, D.A. Kirk, and G. Donaldson. 2003. Lead fishing sinkers and jigs in Canada: Review of their use patterns and toxic impacts on wildlife. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Wildlife Service. Occasional Paper #108.

  • Scheuhammer, A.M., and S.L. Norris. 1995. A review of the environmental impacts of lead shotshell ammunition and lead fishing weights in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Wildlife Service Occ. Paper # 88.

  • Schroeder, R.R. 2010. Lead fishing tackle: The case for regulation in Washington State. MS Thesis. Olympia, WA: Evergreen State College.

  • Schummer, M.L., I. Fife, S.A. Petrie, and S.S. Badzinski. 2011. Artifact ingestion in sea ducks wintering at northeastern Lake Ontario. Waterbirds 34: 51–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sears, J. 1988. Regional and seasonal variations in lead poisoning in the mute swan Cygnus olor in relation to the distribution of lead and lead weights, in the Thames area, England. Biological Conservation 46: 115–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sears, J. 1989. Feeding activity and body condition of mute swans Cygnus olor in rural and urban areas of a lowland river system. Wildfowl 40: 88–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sears, A., and J. Hunt. 1991. Lead poisoning in mute swans, Cygnus olor, in England. In Proceedings of the third IWRB international swan symposium, eds. J. Sears, and P. Bacon. Wildfowl Supplement 1: 383–388.

  • Sidor, I.F., M.A. Pokras, A.R. Major, R. Poppenga, and R.M. Miconi. 2003. Mortality of the common loon in New England, 1988 to 2000. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 39: 306–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spray, C., and H. Milne. 1988. The incidence of lead poisoning among whooper and mute swans Cygnus cygnus and C. olor in Scotland. Biological Conservation 44: 265–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stern, P., T. Dietz, L. Kalof, and G. Guagano. 1999. A value-belief-norm theory of support for social movements: The case of environmental concern. Human Ecology Review 6: 81–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, W.B., and J.C. Okoniewski. 2001. Necropsy findings and environmental contaminants in common loons from New York. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 37: 178–184.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strom, S.M., J.A. Langenberg, N.K. Businga, and J.K. Batten. 2009. Lead exposure in Wisconsin birds. In Ingestion of lead from spent ammunition: Implications for wildlife and humans, eds. R.T. Watson, M. Fuller, M. Pokras, and W.G. Hunt. Boise, ID: The Peregrine Fund. https://doi.org/10.4080/ilsa.2009.0104.

  • Stroud, D.A. 2015. Regulation of some sources of lead poisoning: A brief review. In Proceedings of the Oxford lead symposium, eds. R.J. Delahay and C.J. Spray, 8–26. Oxford: Edward Grey Institute.

  • Thomas, V.G. 2019. Chemical compositional standards for non-lead hunting ammunition and fishing weights. In Lead in hunting ammunition: Persistent problems and solutions, eds. N. Kanstrup, V.G. Thomas, and A.D. Fox, Ambio vol. 48, Special Issue. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-018-1124-x.

  • Thomas, V.G, N. Kanstrup, and C. Gremse. 2015. Key questions and responses regarding the transition to use of lead-free ammunition. In Proceedings of the Oxford lead symposium. Lead ammunition: Understanding and minimising the risks to human and environmental health. Edward Grey Institute, The University of Oxford. http://www.oxfordleadsymposium.info/wp-content/uploads/OLS_proceedings/papers/OLS_proceedings_thomas_kanstrup_gremse.pdf.

  • Thomas, V.G., and R. Guitart. 2003. Lead pollution from shooting and angling, and a common regulative approach. Environmental Policy and Law 33: 143–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, V.G. 1997. Attitudes and issues preventing bans on toxic lead shot and sinkers in North America and Europe. Environmental Values 6: 185–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trust, K.A., M.W. Miller, J.K. Ringelman, and I.M. Orme. 1990. Effects of ingested lead on antibody production in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 26: 316–322.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Twiss, M.P. 1997. Preventing lead poisoning of Ontario’s piscivorous birds through policy and regulative reform. MS Thesis. Univ. of Guelph, Ontario, Canada.

  • Twiss, M.P., and V.G. Thomas. 1998. Preventing fishing-sinker-induced lead poisoning of common loons through Canadian policy and regulative reform. Journal of Environmental Management 53: 49–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tyrrell, R. 2015. Lead weights. In Heybridge: A late iron age and Roman settlement, excavations at Elms Farm 1993-5 eds. M. Atkinson and S.J. Preston. Internet Archaeology 40. http://dx.doi.org/10.11141/ia.40.1.tyrrell8.

  • USEPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1994. Lead fishing sinkers; response to citizens’ petition and proposed ban; proposed rule, 40 CFR part 745. Federal Register 59: 11122–11143.

    Google Scholar 

  • USFWS (US Fish and Wildlife Service). 1986. Final supplemental environmental impact statement on the use of lead shot for hunting migratory birds. Office of Migratory Bird Management, FES 86-16.

  • Vaske, J.J., and M. Manfredo. 2012. Social psychological considerations in wildlife management. In Human dimensions of wildlife management, 2nd ed., eds. D.J. Decker, S.J. Riley, and W.F. Siemer. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

  • Walker, R.E. 1981. Malleus and podagra: Lead poisoning in horse and man. Veterinary History 1: 118–136.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wani, A.L., A. Ara, and J.A. Usmani. 2015. Lead toxicity: A review. Interdisciplinary Toxicology 8: 55–64.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (World Health Organization). 2009. Global health risks: Mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks. Geneva, CH. https://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GlobalHealthRisks_report_full.pdf.

  • Windingstad, R.M., S.M. Kerr, L.N. Locke, and J.J. Hurt. 1984. Lead poisoning of sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis). Prairie Naturalist 16: 21–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, K.A., M.J. Brown, R.L. Cromie, G.M. Hilton, C. Mackenzie, J.L. Newth, D.J. Pain, C.M. Perrins, et al. 2019. Regulation of lead fishing weights results in mute swan population recovery. Biological Conservation 230: 67–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zabka, T.S., M.M. Haulena, B. Puschner, F.M.D. Gulland, P.A. Conrad, and L.J. Lowenstine. 2006. Acute lead toxicosis in a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardsi) consequent to ingestion of a lead fishing sinker. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42: 651–657.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the following people for contributing their data and perspectives to the development of this paper: Eric Corneau, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Gatineau, Que., Canada. Susan Gallo, Maine Audubon Society, Falmouth, ME, USA. Meghan Hartwick, Univ. of New Hampshire, Durham, NH USA. Carrol Henderson, Minnesota Dept. of Natural Resources, St. Paul, MN, USA. Erica LeMoine, Sigurd Olson Inst., Northland College, Ashland, WI, USA. Daniel and Ginger Poleschook, loon biologists, Loon Lake, WA, USA. Sean Strom, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI, USA. Jillian Whitney, Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation, West Boylston, MA, USA.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Loon Preservation Committee (LPC), P.O. Box 604, Moultonborough, NH, 03254, USA

    Tiffany Grade & Harry Vogel

  2. ToxEcology – Environmental Consulting Ltd., 204-53 West Hastings St, Vancouver, BC, V6B 1G4, USA

    Pamela Campbell

  3. Michigan Department of Natural Resources Wildlife Disease Lab, 4125 Beaumont Rd, Lansing, MI, 48910, USA

    Thomas Cooley & Julie Melotti

  4. Wildlife Health Program, Biodiversity Research Institute, 276 Canco Road, Portland, ME, 04103, USA

    Michelle Kneeland

  5. Biological Resources, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science, National Park Service, 1201 Oakridge Drive Suite 200, Fort Collins, CO, 80525, USA

    Elaine Leslie

  6. Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, University of Maine, 251 Nutting Hall, Orono, ME, 04469, USA

    Brooke MacDonald

  7. Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, USA

    Elizabeth Jane Parmley

  8. US Fish & Wildlife Service, Wildlife Center of Virginia, Waynesboro, VA, 22980, USA

    Cyndi Perry

  9. Wildlife Clinic & Center for Conservation Medicine, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, 01536, USA

    Mark Pokras

  10. Vancouver, Canada

    Pamela Campbell

  11. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Wildlife Health Unit, 108 Game Farm Road, Delmar, NY, 12009, USA

    Joseph Okoniewski

  12. Oakton, USA

    Cyndi Perry

Authors
  1. Tiffany Grade
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Pamela Campbell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Thomas Cooley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michelle Kneeland
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Elaine Leslie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Brooke MacDonald
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Julie Melotti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Joseph Okoniewski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Elizabeth Jane Parmley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Cyndi Perry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Harry Vogel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Mark Pokras
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tiffany Grade.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (PDF 418 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Grade, T., Campbell, P., Cooley, T. et al. Lead poisoning from ingestion of fishing gear: A review. Ambio 48, 1023–1038 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01179-w

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01179-w

Keywords

Search

Navigation