Introduction

Freshwater is one of the most important natural resources on the planet (Yargholi et al. 2023a). In many countries around the world, water scarcity threatens the sustainability of their development (Nazari and Keshavarz; 2023; Yargholi et al. 2023b; Kanani et al. 2022; Dehghanisanij et al. 2020). Near East and North Africa (NENA), which comprise approximately 60% of the total land area of the region, has the lowest availability of freshwater resources per capita. The NENA is already naturally vulnerable to chronic water shortages, and due to numerous factors including demography, food security policies, socioeconomic development, and climate change, this situation will become more severe in the coming decades. The crop production in this region is affected by a number of abiotic factors, including freshwater scarcity, the climate, and soil salinity (Hammami et al. 2024; Zhang et al. 2024; Chitheer and Alaraji 2023; Ingrao et al. 2023; El Chami et al. 2022; Beck et al. 2020). Agricultural irrigated production, which already uses more than 85% of renewable freshwater resources, will face substantial challenges in meeting augmented national food demand and supporting economic development in rural areas (Perry et al. 2017). In terms of economic importance, date palms are one of the most strategic products. FAO (2018) estimates that the total cultivation area of date palms in the world is 1.1 million hectares with 8.5 million tons of production and most of the cultivation area is in the NENA region (Fig. 1).Footnote 1

Fig. 1
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Date palm cultivation area (%) and production (tons) in the world (main countries) (FAOSTAT 2018)

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Since palm trees are native to the NENA region, which is predominantly dry land with high salinity, the irrigation system of palm trees requires special attention. Consequently, with the development of modern irrigation systems, researchers have attempted to compare these irrigation systems from different perspectives in order to determine the most appropriate irrigation system and provide its design to designers. In the New Valley Governorate, Kamel et al. (2024) evaluated a variety of irrigation methods in order to increase the economic efficiency of date palm production. In Egypt, Samia et al. (2022) examined irrigation water efficiency and productivity of sewi date palms under a variety of irrigation systems. Ahmed Mohammed et al. (2020) examined the impacts of a novel water-saving subsurface irrigation system on photosynthetic characteristics, yield, water productivity, and fruit quality in date palms under arid conditions in Saudi Arabia. Ibrahim et al. (2019) examined the effect of border and bubbler irrigation systems on the vegetative growth of palms in Jordan. In Tunisian oases. Dhehibi et al. (2018) conducted economic and environmental evaluations of different irrigation systems for date palm farming system in the GCC Countries (Case of Oman). Based on a design study conducted by Ankidawa and Zakariah (2018), a drip irrigation system was designed and evaluated for the irrigation of date palm plantations at MAUTECH, Yola, Adamawa State, and Northeastern Nigeria. A study by Dhaouadi et al. (2017) examined the coefficient of uniformity, efficiency of application, yields, and water productivity of different irrigation systems. Aridah (2016) examined the effect of irrigation systems on the productivity and income of date palm farmers in Sabha, Libya. In Saudi Arabia, Ahmed et al. (2012) evaluated the performance of surface and subsurface drip irrigation systems with three types of pipes. Khan and Prathapar (2012) studied the impact of drip and traditional irrigation systems’ water management in the palm fields of Oman. In a laboratory and field study conducted by Al-Amoud (2010), a comparison was made between subsurface drip irrigation systems and surface drip irrigation systems concerning their effect on yield and water consumption. Based on the literature review, it appears that researchers have compared irrigation systems on the basis of only one or only a few factors. The choice of an irrigation system for a particular site is not always straightforward and may depend on a number of variables (Nazari et al. 2023, 2024; Kanani et al. 2024). In order to select the appropriate irrigation method for a given site, several factors need to be considered, including the availability of water, soil, topography, climate, crop, productivity, labor availability, energy, initial costs, operation costs, flexibility to accommodate farming operations, flexibility to accommodate other uses, personal preference, supplier reliability, and after-sales service and other effective factors (Veisi et al. 2022; Neissi et al. 2020, 2019; Reinders 2019). In the world today, water has an important role to play in economic development. Due to water scarcity problems, especially in the agricultural sector, the NENA region faces serious challenges in achieving sustainable development. Choosing the most appropriate irrigation method for agricultural fields can contribute to the efficient use of water and the effective management of water resources. Considering that the choice of an ideal irrigation system depends on a number of factors, it is imperative to consider all the relevant factors prior to selecting and implementing irrigation. The purpose of this study is to develop an analytical hierarchy process in order to determine which irrigation system is most suitable for date palm trees in the NENA region.

Material and methods

In this case study, the study area was the Near East and North Africa (NENA), The Case of Iran (Fig. 2). An assessment of the irrigation systems implemented in four provinces of Khuzestan, Bushehr, Kerman, and Sistan and Baluchestan.

Fig. 2
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The study region: The Near East and North Africa (NENA), the case of Iran

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For evaluating and selecting irrigation systems, several methods are available, including Rapid Assessment (RA) (Mwambi et al. 2024; Petheram et al. 2018), Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) (Abawa et al. 2024; Imron 2021; Neissi et al. 2020), Analytical Network Process (ANP) (Zolfaghary et al. 2024; He et al. 2023), Value Engineering (El-Nashar and Elyamany 2023; Shanono and Nasidi 2022; Al-Anzi et al. 2017), and other methods. The Analysis Hierarchy Process (AHP) was selected because it enabled a pair comparison of all factors influencing the decision, the application of expert opinions when comparing options, and the application of Expert Choice v11.0 software to determine the optimal irrigation system based on field and mathematical analysis. Expert Choice software does not inherently require calibration, and the model validation was conducted by ensuring the accuracy and consistency of the input data (e.g., judgment values in pairwise comparisons). Figure 3 illustrates the four main steps of this study.

Fig. 3
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The main steps of study

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In step 1, by using document studies, library data, field data, and expert opinions (12 experts from the Water Organization, 16 executive experts from the Water and Soil Department of the Agriculture Organization, 8 irrigation engineers, and 6 university professors) we identified effective criteria for determining irrigation systems. Figure 4 illustrates the criteria in the hierarchical analysis structure.

Fig. 4
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The hierarchical overall structure for determining irrigation system

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In step 2, with the presence of experts after discussing and exchanging opinions and explanations about each of the criteria during paired comparisons, the most important criteria in selecting the appropriate irrigation system were determined and the average score of the criteria was entered in the Expert Choice software. After collecting the information from the study areas, the final assessment was evaluated by entering the information of the sub-criteria similarly. In step 3, Irrigation systems were evaluated separately for each of the regions from the perspective of technical, social, economic, operation and maintenance, and environmental criteria, taking into account the relevant sub-criteria (Fig. 5). In step 4, determining the appropriate irrigation system and prioritizing irrigation systems for the study areas was done.

Fig. 5
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Traditional and modern irrigation systems in the studied date palm fields

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Results and Discussion

AHP decision-making model in Khuzestan (Abadan and Khorramshahr) province

The sprinkler irrigation system was not evaluated due to the large size of the palm fields and the poor quality of the water. Three irrigation systems were investigated in AHP, including surface, low pressure, and pressurized (bubbler and sprayer). Three sections describe the results of the prioritization of irrigation systems. According to the first section, the priority of the systems is determined by considering all criteria, such as technical, economic, social, operational, and maintenance. According to technical criteria, prioritization is made in the second section. Abadan and Khorramshahr were prioritized specifically in the third section.

Prioritization of systems based on all criteria

By combining all of the effects of all criteria on system selection, Expert Choice software determined that low-pressure irrigation systems ranked highest with 39.7 percent, followed by bubbler and spray irrigation systems at 35 percent, and traditional surface irrigation systems at 25.3 percent. Figure 6 indicates that the technical criteria had a 39.1 percent impact on the selection of the appropriate irrigation system. It was recommended that the sprayer system be used in date palm farms with intermediate crops, and the bubbler system be used in date palm farms without intermediate crops.

Fig. 6
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Comparison of the weight of the criteria and the different irrigation systems based on all the effective criteria in selecting the superior irrigation system

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Figure 7 illustrates the performance analysis of the model for selecting the irrigation systems in Abadan and Khorramshahr. In terms of social criteria (more acceptance) and ease of operation and maintenance, the low-pressure irrigation system has the highest ranking among the three systems, followed by the bubbler and sprayer irrigation systems. The lowest rank belongs to traditional surface irrigation, with the exception of the economic criterion.

Fig. 7
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Analyzing model performance for selecting irrigation systems in Abadan and Khorramshahr based on all criteria

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Prioritization of systems based on technical criteria

In Figs. 8 and 9, irrigation systems in the Abadan and Khorramshahr are prioritized based on technical criteria. Among the technical criteria, the water quantity (indicating the amount of water required in different irrigation systems) has the highest weight of 33.2%. Based on this, the model is in line with the primary objective of the study. Compatibility and compliance with the crop pattern of the region are the second and third most important technical measures (20.7%).

Fig. 8
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Comparison of the weight of the criteria and the different irrigation systems in determining the superior irrigation system

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Fig. 9
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Analyzing model performance for selecting irrigation systems in Abadan and Khorramshahr based on technical criteria

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Figure 10 illustrates the economic and technical aspects of different irrigation systems. In terms of both technical and economic advantages, the low-pressure irrigation system is superior. According to Fig. 10, the low-pressure irrigation system would receive priority if there were a financial limit for installing a trickle irrigation system.

Fig. 10
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Comparison of two-dimensional diagrams of different irrigation systems in terms of their technical and economic characteristics

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A comparison of the two systems based on their main characteristics

Figures 11 and 12 provide a comparison between low-pressure irrigation systems and trickle and surface irrigation systems in date palm fields (low-pressure irrigation systems are the first priority). Based on technical superiority (higher efficiency), operation (better and more equitable water distribution), social acceptance (higher acceptance), and environmental (less drainage production and preservation of salt balance), the low-pressure irrigation system is a 14.4% improvement over traditional surface irrigation systems (Table 1).

Fig. 11
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The Analysis of the head of low pressure and surface irrigation systems in Abadan and Khorramshahr

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Fig. 12
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Analysis of head of trickle and low-pressure irrigation system in Abadan and Khorramshahr

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Table 1 The first and second priority irrigation systems in Abadan and Khorramshahr
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Figure 12 illustrates that low-pressure irrigation systems are more economical and suitable for farmers in terms of economics and social aspects than trickle irrigation systems (bubbler/sprayer). In terms of technical efficiency (higher irrigation efficiency) and environmental benefits (less drainage), trickle irrigation was superior to low-pressure irrigation. In conclusion, based on the outcome of all factors, the low-pressure irrigation system performed better than the trickle irrigation system by 4.7 percent.

As a result of the results of the AHP model, field visits, and consideration of the existing infrastructures in Abadan and Khorramshahr (low-pressure irrigation system), it is proposed that the system be implemented with the necessary modifications to the existing network in order to address different conditions in Khuzestan province, including climate, evaporation rates, salinity conditions, social problems, and infrastructure. The following reforms are proposed:

  • The Repair of structures;

  • Dredging and modification of drainage networks;

  • Coordinating the irrigation network for at least one or two days of irrigation;

  • The construction of ditch irrigation systems is recommended for low-pressure irrigation systems.

The low-pressure irrigation system is capable of control water delivery and is compatible with drought conditions. Water is piped in this system. Water is distributed fairly and in accordance with irrigation needs. Moreover, it is easier and more practical to distribute and control fair water through pipes under drought conditions and with a reduction in the share of agricultural water. Consequently, the use of low-pressure pipes rather than canals is an important factor in the system’s superiority. Based on the findings of the research conducted in Abadan and Khorramshahr, high salinity and insufficient drainage systems are the main problems faced by palm trees in this region. In this area, due to the high salinity of the water and soil, as well as the heavy soil texture, there will be a high requirement for leaching.. Therefore, it is recommended to use surface irrigation systems that are capable of leaching higher.

The result of the AHP decision-making model in Bushehr province

Figure 13 indicates that the low-pressure irrigation system in Bushehr has scored the highest in terms of surface water sources with 43.4 percent, followed by the trickle irrigation system (bubbler/sprayer) with the score of 29.3% and traditional surface irrigation system with 27.3%. The selection of an irrigation system is largely influenced by technical criteria, which account for 39.1 percent of the selection process.

Fig. 13
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Result of the prioritization of irrigation systems in Bushehr date palm trees using surface water resources

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Based on its groundwater source, the trickle irrigation system (bubbler/sprayer) received the highest score of 44.3% followed by the low-pressure irrigation system with the score of 33% and surface irrigation system with 22.7% score (Fig. 14). The other criteria remained unchanged.

Fig. 14
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Result of prioritization of the irrigation systems in Bushehr date palm trees using surface water resources

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The result of the AHP decision-making model in Kerman province

Based on the combined effects of all criteria for selecting a system selection in Expert Choice software, it was determined that trickle irrigation system (bubbler/sprayer) were ranked highest score with 44.3%, followed by a low pressure irrigation systems with 33%, followed by traditional surface irrigation systems with 22.7% (Fig. 15). In addition, technical criteria had the greatest impact on the selection of irrigation systems with 39.1%.

Fig. 15
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Result of prioritization of the irrigation systems in Kerman date palm trees

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The result of the AHP decision-making model in Sistan and Baluchestan province

According to the results of the study, a trickle irrigation system (bubbler/sprayer) with a score of 45.3% had the highest ranking, followed by a low-pressure irrigation system with a score of 32.6%, and finally, a surface irrigation system with a score of 22.1% was preferred. In date palm fields with lighter soil textures that do not require leaching or intercrop cultivation, the sprayer irrigation system is preferable. Figure 16 illustrates how technical criteria have the greatest influence on the selection of irrigation systems, accounting for 39.1%.

Fig. 16
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Result of prioritization of the irrigation systems in Sistan and Baluchestan date palm trees

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As shown in Table 2, the preferred system with additional requirements for its implementation is presented.

Table 2 Summary of results
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Conclusion

The NENA region faces significant challenges in achieving sustainable development due to water scarcity, particularly in the agricultural sector. Selecting the most effective irrigation system for date palm cultivation in arid areas like the NENA region can greatly improve water consumption and management. This study aimed to develop an analytical hierarchy process (AHP) for determining the optimal irrigation system for date palm trees, using Iran as a case study. Through document reviews, field data, and the insights of 42 experts analyzed with Expert Choice software, key criteria were identified for irrigation system selection. The results indicated that technical, economic, social, operational, maintenance, and environmental factors had respective impacts of 39.1%, 8.9%, 21.0%, 19.9%, and 11.0% on system selection. The study found that furrow irrigation with low-pressure water distribution was the most suitable for Khuzestan, while bubbler irrigation was ideal for Bushehr. In Kerman, Sistan, and Baluchestan, a combination of bubbler and sprayer systems proved most effective. The model presented in this study provides a practical tool for evaluating and ranking irrigation systems not only in the NENA region but also in similar water-scarce regions. Establishing a dedicated database for palm irrigation systems across the NENA region is also recommended to support sustainable development goals by enhancing water productivity in these arid areas.