Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Growth of foliose lichens: a review

  • Published:
Symbiosis Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This review considers various aspects of the growth of foliose lichens including early growth and development, variation in radial growth rate (RaGR) of different species, growth to maturity, lobe growth variation, senescence and fragmentation, growth models, the influence of environmental variables, and the maintenance of thallus symmetry. The data suggest that a foliose lichen thallus is essentially a ‘colony’ in which the individual lobes exhibit a considerable degree of autonomy in their growth processes. During development, recognisable juvenile thalli are usually formed by 15 months to 4 years while most mature thalli exhibit RaGR between 1 and 5 mm yr−1. RaGR within a species is highly variable. The growth rate-size curve of a foliose lichen thallus may result from growth processes that take place at the tips of individual lobes together with size-related changes in the intensity of competition for space between the marginal lobes. Radial growth and growth in mass is influenced by climatic and microclimatic factors and also by substratum factors such as rock and bark texture, chemistry, and nutrient enrichment. Possible future research topics include: (1) measuring fast growing foliose species through life, (2) the three dimensional changes that occur during lobe growth, (3) the cellular changes that occur during regeneration, growth, and division of lobes, and (4) the distribution and allocation of the major lichen carbohydrates within lobes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aplin PS, Hill DJ (1979) Growth analysis of circular lichen thalli. J Theor Biol 78:347

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1973) Seasonal growth and growth rate colony size relationships in six species of saxicolous lichens. New Phytol 72:1023–1030

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1974) Growth phases in the life of a lichen thallus. New Phytol 73:913

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1975) The influence of aspect on the pattern of seasonal growth in the lichen Parmelia glabratula ssp. fuliginosa. New Phytol 75:245–251

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1976a) Studies on the growth rate of lichens. In: Brown DH, Bailey RH, Hawksworth DL (eds) Progress and problems in lichenology. Academic, London, pp 309–322

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1976b) The influence of the frequency of wetting and drying on the radial growth of three saxicolous lichens in the field. New Phytol 77:719–724

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1978) The colonization of a slate rock surface by a lichen. New Phytol 81:85–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1979) Growth and regeneration of lichen thalli with the central portions artificially removed. Environ Exp Bot 19:175–178

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1981) Field experiments on the dispersal, establishment and colonization of lichens on a slate rock surface. Environ Exp Bot 21:116–120

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1984a) Growth of experimentally reconstructed thalli of the lichen Parmelia conspersa. New Phytol 98:497–502

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1984b) The influence of bird droppings and uric acid on the growth of five species of saxicolous lichens. Environ Exp Bot 24:95–99

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1988) Substrate colonization, growth and competition. In: Galun M (ed) Handbook of lichenology. CRC, Cleveland, pp 3–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1990a) Dispersal, establishment and survival of soredia and fragments of the lichen Hypogymnia physodes (L.). New Phytol 114:239–245

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1990b) The influence of calcium and magnesium on the growth of the lichens. Xanthoria parietina and Parmelia saxatilis. Environ Exp Bot 30:51–57

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1991a) Experimental studies of lobe growth in the lichen Parmelia conspersa (Ehrh. ex Ach.) Ach. New Phytol 119:315–319

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1991b) The influence of climate on the dispersal of lichen soredia. Environ Exp Bot 31:239–245

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1992) A comparison of the growth curves of the foliose lichen Parmelia conspersa determined by a cross-sectional study and by direct measurement. Environ Exp Bot 32:221–227

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1993a) Factors determining lobe growth in foliose lichen thalli. New Phytol 124:675–679

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1993b) Seasonal growth of foliose lichens in successive years in South Gwynedd, Wales. Environ Exp Bot 33:225–232

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1993c) The growth of six saxicolous lichens transplanted to lime-rich and lime-poor substrates in South Gwynedd, Wales. Symbiosis 15:257–267

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1994) The influence of bird droppings on the growth of lichen fragments transplanted to slate and cement substrates. Symbiosis 17:75–86

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (1995) Lobe interactions within the thallus margin and the maintenance of symmetry in the lichen Parmelia conspersa (Ehrh. ex Ach.)Ach. Symbiosis 18:129–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (2000) Competitive interactions between four foliose lichen species with and without nutrient enrichment. Symbiosis 28:323–335

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (2003) Lobe connections and lobe crowding are associated with growth rate in the lichen Xanthoparmelia conspersa. Symbiosis 34:133–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (2007) Competition in lichen communities. Symbiosis 43:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (2009) Monthly fluctuations in radial growth of individual lobes of the lichen Parmelia conspersa (Ehrh. Ex Ach.) Ach. Symbiosis 47:9–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA (2010) Lobe formation and division in the foliose lichen Xanthoparmelia conspersa. Symbiosis 51:227–232

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA, Smith SN (1992) Lobe growth variation and the maintenance of symmetry in foliose lichen thalli. Symbiosis 12:145–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA, Smith SN (1994) The levels of ribitol, arabitol and mannitol in individual lobes of the lichen Parmelia conspersa (Ehrh. ex Ach.)Ach. Environ Exp Bot 34:253–260

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA, Smith SN (1996) Factors determining the growth curve of the foliose lichen Parmelia conspersa. New Phytol 134:517–522

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA, Smith SN (1997) Factors associated with degeneration of the thallus center in foliose lichens. Symbiosis 22:293–302

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA, Smith SN (1998) Does radial growth of the lichen Parmelia conspersa depend exclusively on growth processes at the lobe tip? Environ Exp Bot 39:263–269

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA, Smith SN (1999) Factors associated with lobe division in the lichen Parmelia conspersa (Ehrh. ex. Ach.)Ach. Symbiosis 26:265–277

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA, Bradwell T (2010) Growth of crustose lichens: a review. Geogr Ann A Phys Geog 92A:3–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Backor M, Djubai A (2004) Short-term and chronic effects of copper, zinc and mercury on the chlorophyll content of four lichen photobionts and related algae. J Hatt Bot lab 95:271–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey RH (1976) Ecological aspects of dispersal and establishment in lichens. In: Brown DH, Bailey RH, Hawksworth DL (eds) Progress and problems in lichenology. Academic, London, pp 215–247

    Google Scholar 

  • Bando M, Sugino M (1995a) Cultivation of the lichen Parmotrema tinctorum in growth cabinets. J Plant Res 108:53–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Bando M, Sugino M (1995b) Effect of low-humidity treatment on growth of the lichen Parmotrema tinctorum in a growth cabinet. J Plant Res 108:527–529

    Google Scholar 

  • Bench G, Clark BM, Mangelson NF, St Clair LL, Rees LB, Grant PG, Southon JR (2002) Use of 14C/C ratios to provide insights into the magnitude of carbon turnover in the crustose saxicolous lichen Caloplaca trachyphylla. Lichenologist 34:169–180

    Google Scholar 

  • Benedict JB (1990) Experiments on lichen growth. I. Seasonal patterns and environmental controls. Arct Alp Res 22:244–254

    Google Scholar 

  • Benedict JB (1991) Experiments on lichen growth II. Effects of a seasonal snow cover. Arc Alp Res 23:189–199

    Google Scholar 

  • Benedict JB (2008) Experiments on lichen growth III. The shape of the age-size curve. Arc Ant Alp Res 40:15–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Benedict JB, Nash TH (1990) Radial growth and habitat selection by morphologically similar chemotypes of Xanthoparmelia. Bryologist 93:319–327

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett JP (2008) Discrimination of lichen genera and species using element concentrations. Lichenologist 40:135–151

    Google Scholar 

  • Brightman FH (1959) Some factors influencing lichen growth in towns. Lichenologist 1:104–108

    Google Scholar 

  • Brodo IM (1965) Studies of growth rates of corticolous lichens on Long Island, New York. Bryologist 68:451–456

    Google Scholar 

  • Brodo IM (1973) Substrate ecology. In: Ahmadjian V, Hale ME (eds) The lichens. Academic, London and New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Childress S, Keller JB (1980) Lichen growth. J Theor Biol 82:157–165

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper EJ, Smith FM, Wookey PA (2001) Increased rainfall ameliorates the negative effect of trampling in the growth of high Arctic forage lichens. Symbiosis 31:153–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Coxson DS, Stevenson SK (2007) Growth rate responses of Lobaria pulmonaria to canopy structure in even-aged and old-growth cedar-hemlock forests of central-interior British Columbia, Canada. For Ecol Manag 242:5–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Degelius G (1964) Biological studies of the epiphytic vegetation on twigs of Fraxinus excelsior. Acta Horti Gotob 27:11–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrar JF (1973) Lichen physiology. In: Ferry BW, Baddeley MS, Hawksworth DL (eds) Progress and problems in lichenology. University of London, Athlone, pp 238–282

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrar JF (1976) The lichen as an ecosystem: observation and experiment. In: Brown DH, Bailey RH, Hawksworth DL (eds) Progress and problems in lichenology. Academic, London, pp 385–406

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher PJ, Proctor MCF (1978) Observations on a season’s growth of Parmelia caperata and P. sulcata in South Devon. Lichenologist 10:81–89

    Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher A (1976) Nutritional aspects of marine and maritime lichen ecology. In: Brown DH, Bailey RH, Hawksworth DL (eds) Progress and problems in lichenology. Academic, London, pp 359–384

    Google Scholar 

  • Frey ED (1959) Die Flechtemflora und –vegetation des Nationalparks im Unterengadin. Erg Wiss Untersuch Schweizer Nationalparks 6:1–319

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaio-Oliveira G, Dahlman MC, Palmqvist K (2004) Growth in relation to micoclimatic conditions and physiological of four Lobaria pulmonaria populations in two contrasting habitats. Ecography 27:13–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaio-Oliveira G, Dahlman PK, Maguas C (2005) Responses of the lichen Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr. to varying nitrogen concentrations. Lichenologist 37:171–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Garty J, Gal M, Galun M (1974) The relationship between physiochemical soil properties and substrate choice of ‘multisubstrate’ lichen species. Lichenologist 6:146–150

    Google Scholar 

  • Gauslaa Y, Palmqvist K, Solhaug KA, Holien H, Hilmo O, Nybakken L, Myhre LC, Ohlson M (2007) Growth of epiphytic old forest lichens across climatic and successional gradients. Can J For Res 37:1832–1845

    Google Scholar 

  • Gauslaa Y, Palmqvist K, Solhaug KA, Hilmo O, Holien H, Nybakken L, Ohlson M (2009) Size-dependent growth of two old-growth associated macrolichen species. New Phytol 181:583–692

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert OL (1971) Studies along the edge of a lichen desert. Lichenologist 5:11–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Golm GT, Hill PS, Wells H (1993) Life expectancy in a Tulsa cemetery: growth and population structure of the lichen Xanthoparmelia cumberlandia. Am Midl Nat 129:373–383

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenhalgh GN, Anglesea D (1979) The distribution of algal cells in lichen thalli. Lichenologist 11:283–292

    Google Scholar 

  • Hakulinen R (1966) Über die Wachstumgeschwindigheit einerger Laubflechten. Ann Bot Fenn 3:167–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale ME (1959) Studies on lichen growth rate and succession. Bull Torrey Bot Club 66:126

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale ME (1967) The biology of lichens. Edward Arnold, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale ME (1970) Single-lobe growth-rate patterns in the lichen Parmelia caperata. Bryologist 73:72–81

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale ME (1973) Growth. In: Ahmadjian V, Hale ME (eds) The lichens. Academic, New York, pp 473–492

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris GP (1971a) The ecology of corticolous lichens. I. The zonation on oak and birch in south Devon. J Ecol 59:431–439

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris GP (1971b) The ecology of corticolous lichens II. The relationship between physiology and the environment. J Ecol 59:441–452

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris GP (1972) The ecology of corticolous lichens III. A simulation model of productivity as a function of light intensity and water availability. J Ecol 60:19–40

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill DJ (1981) The growth of lichens with special reference to the modelling of circular thalli. Lichenologist 13:265–287

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill DJ (1984) Studies on the growth of lichens. 1. Lobe formation and the maintenance of circularity in crustose species. Lichenologist 16:273–278

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill DJ (1985) Changes in photobiont dimensions and numbers during co-development of lichen symbionts. In: Brown DH (ed) Lichen physiology and cell biology. Plenum, New York and London, pp 303–317

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill DJ (1992) Lobe growth in lichen thalli. Symbiosis 12:43–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilmo O, Ott S (2002) Juvenile development of the cyanolichen Lobaria scrobiculata and the green algal lichens Platismatia glauca and P. norvegico in a boreal Picea abies forest. Plant Biol 4:273–280

    Google Scholar 

  • Honegger R (1987) Questions about pattern formation in the algal layer of lichens with stratified (heteromerous) thalli. In: Peveling E (ed) Progress and problems in lichenology in the eighties. Biblio Lichenol No 25. J. Cramer, Berlin-Stuttgart, pp 59–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Honegger R (1996) Experimental studies of growth and regenerative capacity in the foliose lichen Xanthoria parietina. New Phytol 133:573–581

    Google Scholar 

  • Honegger R, Conconi S, Kutasi V (1996) Field studies on growth and regeneration capacity in the foliose macrolichen Xanthoria parietina (teloschistales, Ascomycotina). Bot Acta 109:187–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooker TN (1980) Lobe growth and marginal zonation in crustose lichens. Lichenologist 12:313–323

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones JM, Platt RB (1969) Effects of ionizing radiation, climate and nutrition on growth and structure of a lichen Parmelia conspersa (Ach.)Ach. Radioecology Symposium 2:111–119

    Google Scholar 

  • Karenlampi L (1971) Studies on the relative growth rate of some fruticose lichens. Rep Kevo Subarct Res 7:33–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Kershaw KA (1972) The relationship between moisture content and net assimilation rate of lichen thalli and its ecological significance. Can J Bot 50:543–555

    Google Scholar 

  • Kershaw KA, Millbank JW (1970) Isidia as vegetative propagules in Peltigera apthosa var variolosa (Massal.)Thoms. Lichenologist 4:214–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawrey JD (1984) Biology of lichenized fungi. Praeger, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawrey JD, Hale ME (1977) Studies on lichen growth rates at Plummers Island, Maryland. Proc Biol Soc Wash 90:698–725

    Google Scholar 

  • Linkola K (1918) Über die jahrlichen Längenzuwachs einiger Parmelia and Parmeliopsis Arten. Medd Soc Fauna Flora Fenn 44:153–158

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy DP, Smith DJ (1995) Growth curves for calcium tolerant lichens in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Arct Alp Res 27:290–297

    Google Scholar 

  • McCune B, Caldwell BA (2009) A single phosphorus treatment doubles growth of cyanobacterial lichen transplants. Ecology 90:567–570

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moxham TH (1981) Growth rates of Xanthoria parietina and their relationship to substrate texture. Cryptogam, Bryol, Lichenol 2:171–180

    Google Scholar 

  • Murtagh GJ, Dyer PS, Furneaux PA, Crittenden PD (2002) Molecular and physiological diversity in the bipolar lichen-forming fungus Xanthoria elegans. Mycol Res 106:1277–1286

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palmqvist K, Dahlman L (2006) Responses of the green algal foliose lichen Platismatia glauca to increased nitrogen supply. New Phytol 171:343–356

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palmqvist K, Sundberg B (2000) Light use efficiency of dry matter gain in five macro-lichens: relative impact of microclimate conditions and species-specific traits. Plant Cell Environ 23:1–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Paterson DR, Paterson EW, Kenworthy JB (1983) Physiological studies on temperate lichen species. I. A mathematical model to predict assimilation in the field based on laboratory responses. New Phytol 94:605–618

    Google Scholar 

  • Paulson R (1918) Notes on the ecology of lichens with special reference to Epping Forest. Essex Nat 18:276–286

    Google Scholar 

  • Pentecost A, Rose CI (1985) Apothecium production in Xanthoria parietina. Lichenologist 17:33–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips HC (1963) Growth rate of Parmelia isidiosa (Mull. Arg.) Hale. J Tenn Acad Sci 38:95–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips HC (1969) Annual growth rates of three species of foliose lichens determined photographically. Bull Torrey Bot Club 96:202–206

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter L (1927) The rate of growth of lichens. Trans Br Mycol Soc 12:149–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Proctor MCF (1977) The growth curve of the crustose lichen Buellia canescens (Dicks) De Not. New Phytol 79:659–663

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramkaer K (1978) The influence of salinity on the establishment phase of rocky shore lichens. Bot Tidsskr 72:119–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Righelato RC (1975) Growth of mycelial fungi. In: Smith JE, Berry DR (eds) The filamentous fungi, vol 1. Industrial mycology. Arnold, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhoades FM (1977) Growth rates of the lichen Lobaria oregano as determined from sequential photographs. Can J Bot 55:2226–2233

    Google Scholar 

  • Rydzak J (1961) Investigations on the growth rate of lichens, sec C 16. Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Sklodowska, Lublin, pp 1–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheidegger C (1995) Early development of transplanted isiodiod soredia of Lobaria pulmonaria in an endangered population. Lichenologist 27:361–371

    Google Scholar 

  • Showman RE (1976) Seasonal growth of Parmelia caperata. Bryologist 79:360–363

    Google Scholar 

  • Sletvold N, Hestmark G (1998) Thallus growth asymmetry and habitat inclination in Lasallia pustulata. Bryologist 100:465–466

    Google Scholar 

  • Slocum RD, Ahmadjian V, Hildreth KC (1980) Zoosporogenesis in Trebouxia gelatinosa: ultrastructure potential for zoospore release and implications for the lichen association. Lichenologist 12:173–187

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith DC, Molesworth S (1973) Lichen physiology XIII. Effects of rewetting dry lichens. New Phytol 72:525

    Google Scholar 

  • Snelgar WP, Green TGA (1982) Growth rates of Stictaceae lichens in New Zealand beech forests. Bryologist 85:301–306

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson SK, Coxon DS (2008) Growth responses of Lobaria retigera to forest edge and canopy structure in the inland temperate rainforest, British Columbia. For Ecol Manag 256:618–623

    Google Scholar 

  • Stocker-Wörgötter E (1991) Thallus formation of two cyanobacterial lichens: Peltigera didactyla and P. praetextata, under laboratory conditions. Bull Soc Bot Fr Let Bot 138:179–187

    Google Scholar 

  • Størmer P (1934) Remarks on the growth of Parmelia pulla. Ach. Nyt Mag Naturv 74:295–298

    Google Scholar 

  • Sumner RW (2001) Pattern formation in lichens. MSc Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of technology, pp 1–76

  • Sundberg B, Nasholm T, Palmqvist K (2001) The effect of nitrogen and key thallus components in the two tripartite lichens, Nephroma arcticum and Peltigera aphthosa. Plant Cell & Environ 24:517–527

    Google Scholar 

  • Topham PB (1977) Colonisation, growth, succession and competition. In: Seaward MRD (ed) Lichen ecology. Academic, London, pp 31–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Trinci APJ (1971) Influence of the width of the peripheral growth zone on the radial growth rate of fungal colonies on solid media. J Gen Microbiol 67:325–344

    Google Scholar 

  • Valladares F, Ascaso C, Sancho LG (1994) Intrathalline variability of some structural and physical parameters in the lichen genus Lasallia. Can J Bot 72:415–428

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster M, Brown DH (1997) Preliminary observations on the growth of transplanted Peltigera canina under semi-natural conditions. Lichenologist 29:91–96

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Vision Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, B4 7ET, UK

    Richard A. Armstrong

  2. British Geological Survey, Edinburgh, UK

    Tom Bradwell

Authors
  1. Richard A. Armstrong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tom Bradwell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Richard A. Armstrong.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Armstrong, R.A., Bradwell, T. Growth of foliose lichens: a review. Symbiosis 53, 1–16 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13199-011-0108-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13199-011-0108-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation