Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Roles of Individual Characteristics and Liberalism in Intentional and Unintentional Exposure to Online Sexual Material Among European Youth: A Multilevel Approach

  • Published:
Sexuality Research and Social Policy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine how young people are intentionally or unintentionally exposed to sexual material on the internet. A sample from the EU Kids Online II project, including youth (N = 11,712, 11–16 years, 50 % girls) from 25 countries, was used to examine predictors of unintentional exposure to online sexual material (EOSM) via pop-up images and intentional EOSM on adult/X-rated websites. Using a multilevel analysis, we considered several individual-level predictors (psychosocial characteristics, patters of internet use, and parental mediation), one country-level predictor (mean cultural liberalism of the country), and cross-level interactions. Except for gender, the study did not identify any specific patterns of individual-level predictors for unintentional and intentional EOSM: age, sensation seeking, sexual intercourse, amount of time spent online, level of digital skills, and degree of restrictive mediation predicted both types of EOSM. Intentional EOSM was more often reported by boys, while unintentional EOSM occurred to a similar degree among boys and girls. Finally, living in a country with a stronger culture of liberalism predicted a greater likelihood of intentional but not unintentional EOSM and also was associated with smaller gender differences in intentional EOSM.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ashton, M. C., Danso, H. A., Maio, G. R., Esses, V. M., Bond, M. H., & Keung, D. K. Y. (2005). Two dimensions of political attitudes and their individual difference correlates: A cross- cultural perspective. In R. M. Sorrentino, D. Cohen, J. M. Olson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Culture and social behavior, Ontario symposia on personality and social psychology (pp. 1–29). NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakardjieva, M. (2005). Internet society: the internet in everyday life. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bleakley, A., Hennessy, M., Fishbein, M., & Jordan, A. (2008). It works both ways: the relationship between exposure to sexual content in the media and adolescent sexual behavior. Media Psychology, 11(4), 443–461. doi:10.1080/15213260802491986.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). Contexts of child rearing: problems and prospects. American Psychologist, 34(10), 844–850. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.844.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, D. J., & L'Engle, L. K. (2009). X-rated: sexual attitudes and behaviors associated with U.S. Early adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit media. Communication Research, 36(1), 129–151. doi:10.1177/0093650208326465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Children's Commissioner (2013). Basically…Porn is everywhere. Available at http://www.childrenscommissioner.gov.uk/content/press_release/content_505

  • Clement, U., Schmidt, G., & Kruse, M. (1984). Changes in sex differences in sexual behavior: a replication of a study on west German students (1966–1981). Archives of Sexual Behavior, 13(2), 99–120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daneback, K., & Löfberg, C. (2011). Youth, sexuality and the internet: Young people's use of the internet to learn about sexuality. In E. Dunkels, G.-M. Frånberg, & C. Hällgren (Eds.), Youth culture and net culture: online social practices (pp. 190–206). Hershey: IGI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daneback, K., Månsson, S.-A., Ross, M. W., & Markham, C. (2012). The internet as a source of information about sexuality. Sex Education, 12, 583–598. doi:10.1080/14681811.2011.627739.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • European Values Study (2008). Retrieved May 14, 2012, from www.europeanvaluesstudy.eu/.

  • Garmendia, M., Garitaonandia, C., Martínez, G., & Casado, M. A. (2012). The effectiveness of parental mediation. In S. Livingstone, L. Haddon, & A. Görzig (Eds.), Children, risk and safety on the internet: research and policy challenges in comparative perspective (pp. 231–244). Bristol: The Policy Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Guerra, V. M., & Gouveia, V. V. (2007). Liberalismo/conservadorismo sexual: proposta de umamedidamulti-fatorial [sexual liberalism/conservatism: proposal of a multi-factorial measurement]. Psicologia: Reflexaão e Crítica, 20(1), 43–53. doi:10.1590/S0102-79722007000100007.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guo, G., & Zhao, H. (2000). Multilevel modeling for binary data. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 441–462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. (1980). Motivation, leadership, and organization: do American theories apply abroad. Organizational Dynamics, 9(1), 42–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hox, J. (2000). Multilevel analysis: techniques and applications. Mahwah: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyle, R. H., Stephenson, M. T., Palmgreen, P., Lorch, E. P., & Donohew, R. L. (2002). Reliability and validity of a brief measure of sensation seeking. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 401–414. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00032-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ipsos/EU Kids Online (2011). EU Kids Online II: Technical report. London, LSE: EU Kids Online. Retrieved January 6, 2012, from http://www2.lse.ac.uk/media@lse/research/EUKidsOnline/EUKidsII%20(2009-11)/Survey/Technical%20report.PDF.

  • Kalmus, V., & Roosalu, T. (2012). Institutional filters on children's internet use: An additional explanation of cross-national differences in parental mediation. In M. Walrave, W. Heirman, S. Mels, C. Timmerman, & H. Vandebosch (Eds.), e-Youth: balancing between opportunities and risks (pp. 235–250). Brussels: Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirwil, L. (2009). Parental mediation of children's internet use in different European countries. Journal of Children and Media, 3, 394–409. doi:10.1080/17482790903233440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kutchinsky, B. (1991). Pornography and rape: theory and practice? Evidence from crime data in four countries where pornography is easily available. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 14(1–2), 47–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Livingstone, S. (2007). UK children go online: balancing the opportunities against the risks. 10. Media@lse, London, UK.

  • Livingstone, S., & Haddon, L. (2012). Theoretical framework for children's internet use. In S. Livingstone, L. Haddon, & A. Goerzig (Eds.), Children, risk and safety online: research and policy challenges in comparative perspective (pp. 1–14). Bristol: The Policy Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Livingstone, S., & Helsper, E. (2008). Parental mediation and children's internet use. Journal of broadcasting & electronic media, 52, 581–599. doi:10.1080/08838150802437396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Livingstone, S., & Helsper, E. J. (2010). Balancing opportunities and risks in teenagers' use of the internet: the role of online skills and family context. New Media & Society, 12(2), 309–329. doi:10.1177/1461444809342697.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Livingstone, S., Haddon, L., Görzig, A., & Ólafsson, K. (2011). Risks and safety on the internet: the perspective of European children. Full findings. London: EU Kids Online, LSE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Livingstone, S., Haddon, L., Görzig, A., & Ólafsson, K. (2012). EU kids online. London: EU Kids Online, LSE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lo, V.-H., & Wei, R. (2005). Exposure to internet pornography and Taiwanese adolescents' sexual attitudes and behavior. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 49(2), 221–237. doi:10.1207/s15506878jobem4902_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Löfgren-Mårtenson, L., & Månsson, S.-A. (2010). Lust, love, and life: a qualitative study of Swedish adolescents' perceptions and experiences with pornography. Journal of Sex Research, 47, 568–579. doi:10.1080/00224490903151374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lottes, I. L., & Alkula, T. (2011). An investigation of sexuality-related attitudinal patterns and characteristics related to those patterns for 32 European countries. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 8(2), 77–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maio, G. R., Olson, J. M., Bernard, M. M., & Luke, M. A. (2003). Ideologies, values, attitudes, and behavior. In J. Delamater (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 283–308). New York: Kluwer-Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markham, C. M., Lormand, D., Gloppen, K. M., Peskin, M. F., Flores, B., Low, B., et al. (2010). Connectedness as a predictor of sexual and reproductive health outcomes for youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 46(3), S23–S41. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.11.214.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mesch, G. (2009). Social bonds and internet pornographic exposure among adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 601–618. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.06.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, K. J., Finkelhor, D., & Wolak, J. (2003). The exposure of youth to unwanted sexual materials on the internet: a national survey of risk, impact and prevention. Youth & Society, 34, 330–358. doi:10.1177/0044118X02250123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owens, E. W., Behun, R. J., Manning, J. C., & Reid, R. C. (2012). The impact of internet pornography on adolescents: a review of the research. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 19(1–2), 99–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2006). Adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit material on the internet. Communication Research, 33, 178–204. doi:10.1177/0093650205285369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raudenbush, S., Bryk, A., Cheong, Y. F., Congdon, R., & du Toit, M. (2004). HLM 6: linear and nonlinear modeling. Lincolnwood: Scientific Software.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. H. (2004). Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values? Journal of Social Issues, 50, 19–54. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1994.tb01196.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ševčíková, A., & Konečný, Š. (2011). An exploration of the relationship between real-world sexual experience and online sexual activity among 17 year old adolescents. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 5(1). Retrieved May 14, 2012, from http://cyberpsychology.eu/view.php?cisloclanku=2011062702&article=3.

  • Ševčíková, A., Simon, L., Daneback, K., & Kvapilík, T. (2012a). Bothersome exposure to online sexual content among adolescent girls. Youth & Society. doi:10.1177/0044118X12469379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ševčíková, A., Šeřek, J., & Macháčková, H. (2012b). Exposure to online sexual materials and cross-country differences. In M. Strano, H. Harchovec, F. Sudweeks, & C. Ess (Eds.), Proceedings eighth international conference on cultural attitudes towards technology and communication (pp. 502–513). Murdoch: Murdoch University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. (2013). Youth viewing sexually explicit material online: addressing the elephant on the screen. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 10(1), 62–75. doi:10.1007/s13178-012-0103-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Staksrud, E., & Livingstone, S. (2009). Children and online risk: powerless victims or resourceful participants? Information, communication and society, 12, 364–387. doi:10.1080/13691180802635455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephenson, M. T., Hoyle, R. H., Palmgreen, P., & Slater, M. D. (2003). Brief measures of sensation seeking for screening and large-scale surveys. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 72, 279–286. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2003.08.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2013). The differential susceptibility to media effects model. Journal of Communication, 63(2), 221–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolak, J., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). Unwanted and wanted exposure to online pornography in a national sample of youth internet users. Pediatrics, 119, 247–257. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1891.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. J. (2011). Mass media effects on youth sexual behavior: assessing the claim for causality. Communication Yearbook, 35, 343–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. (2005). Exposure to internet pornography among children and adolescents: a national survey. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 8(5), 473–486. doi:10.1089/cpb.2005.8.473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ybarra, M. L., Finkelhor, D., Mitchell, K. J., & Wolak, J. (2009). Associations between blocking, monitoring, and filtering software on the home computer and youth-reported unwanted exposure to sexual material online. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(12), 857–869. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.09.015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & Collins, W. A. (2003). Autonomy development during adolescence. In G. R. Adams & M. Berzonsky (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of adolescence (pp. 175–204). Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Data collection of the ‘EU Kids Online’ network was funded by the EC (DG Information Society) Safer Internet Plus Programme (project code SIP-KEP-321803); this work was also supported by the Czech Science Foundation (GAP407/11/0585), the Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University, and by the VITOVIN project (CZ.1.07/2.3.00/20.0184), which is co-financed by the European Social Fund and the state budget of Czech Republic.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for Research on Children, Youth and Family, Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University, Joštova 10, 60200, Brno, Czech Republic

    Anna Ševčíková, Jan Šerek, Monica Barbovschi & Kristian Daneback

  2. Department of Social Work, University of Gothenburg, P.O. Box 720, 405 30, Gothenburg, Sweden

    Kristian Daneback

Authors
  1. Anna Ševčíková
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jan Šerek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Monica Barbovschi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kristian Daneback
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anna Ševčíková.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ševčíková, A., Šerek, J., Barbovschi, M. et al. The Roles of Individual Characteristics and Liberalism in Intentional and Unintentional Exposure to Online Sexual Material Among European Youth: A Multilevel Approach. Sex Res Soc Policy 11, 104–115 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-013-0141-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-013-0141-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation