Abstract
This paper examines the genesis of the Paleocene to Lower Eocene shallow-water nodular limestones in South Tibet. The negative carbon isotope excursion representative for the Paleocene–Eocene boundary is located in one nodular limestone bed of the Zhepure Shan Formation showing an extraordinary thickness of about 9 m, inspiring the question under which conditions these nodular limestones were formed. Based on field appearance, the shallow-water nodular limestones of Tingri and Gamba can be classified into five nodular limestone categories (Stylonodular Rock I, Nodular Rock I, Nodular Rock II, stylobedded rock and stylomottled rock) and some transitional members (stylobedded rock transitional to Stylobedded Rock II). Clay variations are assumed to be responsible for these various types of nodular limestones within the sediments. Observations of nodular limestones in South Tibet suggest that those sediments were mostly formed due to autochthonous rather than allochthonous processes. Differential diagenesis resulted in an early selective cementation of limestone nodules due to carbonate supply, while the marls were not cemented but provide the carbonate for the nodule cementation. Additionally, cemented and carbonate-rich nodules are resistant to chemical compaction, while the uncemented and clay-rich marl layers are affected by pressure solution processes due to an overburden of sediments. Additionally, a model is presented, illustrating the origin of different nodular limestones described here.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abed MA, Schneider W (1980) A general aspect in the genesis of nodular limestones documented by the Upper Cretaceous limestones of Jordan. Sediment Geol 26:329–355
Aubry MP, Ouda K (2003) Introduction to the Upper Paleocene-Lower Eocene of the Upper Nule valley. Micropaleontology 49:2–4
Bádenas B, Aurell M (2010) Facies models of a shallow-water carbonate ramp based on distribution of non-skeletal grains (Kimmeridgian, Spain). Facies 56:59–110
Bains S, Corfield RM, Norris RD (1999) Mechanisms of climate warming at the end of the Paleocene. Science 285:724–727
Banerjee S, Jeevankumar S (2007) Facies and depositional sequence of the Mesoproterozoic Rothas Limestone: Eastern Son valley, Vindhyan basin. J Asian Earth Sci 30:82–92
Banerjee S, Jeevankumar S, Sanyal P, Bhattacharyya SK (2006) Stable isotope ratios and nodular limestone of the Proterozoic Rohtas limestone: Vindhyan Basin, India. Carbonates Evaporites 21:133–143
Bathurst RGC (1975) Carbonate sediments and their diagenesis. Developments in Sedimentology 12. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Bathurst RGC (1987) Diagenetically enhanced bedding in argillaceous platform limestones: stratified cementation and selective compaction. Sedimentol 34:749–778
Bathurst RGC (1991) Pressure-dissolution and limestone bedding: the influence of stratified cementation. In: Einsele G, Ricken W, Seilacher A (eds) Cycles and events in stratification. Springer, pp 451–463
Beavington-Penney SJ, Racey A (2004) Ecology of extant nummulitids and other larger benthic foraminifera: applications in palaeoenvironmental analysis. Earth-Sci Rev 67:219–265
Bernoulli D, Jenkyns HC (1970) A Jurassic Basin: the Glasenbach Gorge, Salzburg, Austria. Verh Geol B-A 1970:504–531
Bjorlykke K (1973) Origin of limestone nodules in the Lower Paleozoic of the Oslo Region. Norsk geol Tidsskr 53:419–431
Bjorlykke K (1974) Geochemical and mineralogical influence of Ordovician Island Arcs on epicontinental clastic sedimentation. A study Lower Palaeozoic sedimentation in the Oslo Region, Norway. Sedimentol 21:251–272
Boggs SJ (2009) Petrology of sedimentary rocks, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 1–600
Böhm F, Dommergues J-L, Meister C (1995) Breccias of the Adnet Formation: indicators of a Mid-Liassic tectonic event in the Northern Calcareous Alps (Salzburg/Austria). Geol Rundsch 84:272–286
Burchette TP, Wright VP (1992) Carbonate ramp depositional systems. Sediment Geol 79:3–57
Canfield DE, Raiswell R (1991) Carbonate precipitation and dissolution—its relevance to fossil preservation. In: Allison A, Briggs DEG (eds) Taphonomy—releasing the data locked in fossils. Plenum Press, Berlin, pp 411–453
De Boer PL, Smith DG (1994) Orbital forcing and cyclic sequences, vol 4. International Association of Sedimentologists, Oxford (special publication)
Dickens GR, O’Neil JR, Rea DK, Owen RM (1999) Dissociation of oceanic methane hydrate as a cause of the carbon isotope excursion at the end of the Paleocene. Paleoceanogr 10:965–971
Dunham RJ (1962) Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture. In: Ham WE (ed) Classification of carbonate rocks. A symposium. American Association of Petroleum Geologist Memoir, Tulsa, pp 108–121
Eder W (1982) Diagenetic redistribution of carbonate, a process in forming limestone-marl alternations (Devonian and Carboniferous, Rheinisches Schiefergebirge, W. Germany). In: Einsele G, Seilacher A (eds) Cyclic and events stratification. Springer, Berlin, pp 98–112
Einsele G, Ricken W, Seilacher A (1991) Basic concepts and terms. In: Einsele G, Ricken W, Seilacher A (eds) Cycles and events in stratigraphy. Springer, New York, pp 1–19
Embry AF, Klovan JE (1971) A late Devonian reef tract on northeastern Banks Islands, N.W.T. Bull Can Petr Geo 19:730–781
Fabricius FH (1966) Beckensedimentation und Riffbildung an der Wende Trias/Jura in den Bayerisch-Tiroler Kalkalpen. Int Sedim Petrogr Ser 9, Leiden, vol 9, pp 1–143
Flügel E (2010) Microfacies of carbonate rocks. Springer, Berlin
Füchtbauer H (1988) Sedimente und sedimentgesteine. Schweizerbart Science Publishers, Stuttgart
Gansser A (1964) Geology of the Himalayas. Interscience Publishers John Wiley and Sons, New York
Ghose BK (1977) Paleoecology of the Cenozoic reefal foraminifers and algae—a brief review. Palaeogeogr, Palaeoclimatol, Palaeoecolog 22:231–256
Hallam A (1964) Origin of the limestone-shale rhythms in the Blue Lias of England: a composite theory. J Geol 72:157–168
Hallam A (1986) Origin of minor limestone-shale cycles. Climatically induced or diagenetic? Geol 14:609–612
Heba G, Prichonnet G, El Albani A (2009) Meteoric diagenesis of Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene-Eocene shallow-water carbonates in the Kruja Platform (Albania): geochemical evidence. Geol Carpathica 60:165–179
Heim D (1990) Tone und Tonminerale: Grundlagen der Sedimentologie und Mineralogie. Ferdinand Enke Verlag, Stuttgart
Hollmann R (1962) Über Subsolution und die Knollenkalke des calcare Ammonitico Rosso Superiore im Monte Baldo (Malm; Norditalien). N Jb Geol Paläontol, Mh 1962:163–174
Hollmann R (1964) Subsolutions-Fragmente (Zur Biostratinomie der Ammonoidea im Malm des Monte Baldo, Norditalien). N Jb Geol Paläont Abh 119:22–82
Hottinger L (1973) Selceted Paleogene Larger Foraminifera. In: Hallam A (ed) Atlas of paleobiogeography. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 443–452
Hottinger L (1997) Shallow benthic foraminiferal assemblages as signals for depth of their deposition and their limitations. Bull Soc géol Fr 168:491–505
Hu XM, Jansa L, Wang CS (2008) Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy in south-eastern Tibet: a comparison with the western Himalayas. Cretac Res 29:301–305
Hudson JD, Jenkyns ML (1969) Conglomerates in the Adnet Limestones of the Adnet (Austria) and the origin of the “Scheck”. N Jb Geol Paläontol, Mh 1969:552–558
Illies H (1949) Die Lithogenese des Untereozäns in Nordwestdeutschland. Mitt Geol Staatsinst Hambg 18:7–46
Inden RF, Moore CH (1983) Beach environments. In: Scholle PA, Bebout DG, Moore CH (eds), Carbonate depositional environments. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoirs 33, pp 211–265
Jeans CV (1980) Early submarine lithification in the red chalk and lower chalk of eastern England: a bacterial control model and its implications. Proc Yorks Geol Soc 43:81–157
Jeans C, Hu X, Mortimore R (2012) Calcite cements and the stratigraphical significance of the marine δ13C carbonate reference curve for the Upper Cretaceous Chalk of England. Acta Geol Polon 62:173–196
Jenkyns HC (1974) Origin of red nodular limestones (Ammonitico Rosso, Knollenkalke) in the Mediterranean Jurrassic: a diagenetic model. Int Assoc Sedimentol Spec Publ 1:249–271
Kahsnitz MM, Zhang Q, Willems H (2016) Stratigraphic distribution of larger benthic foraminifera Lockhartia in South Tibet (China). J Foraminifer Res 46:34–47
Kennedy WJ, Garrison RE (1975) Morphology and genesis of nodular chalks and hardgrounds in the Upper Cretaceous of southern England. Sedimentol 22:311–386
Küspert W (1982) Environmental changes during oil shale deposition as deduced from stable isotope ratios. In: Einsele G, Seilacher A (eds) Cyclic and event stratification. Springer, Berlin, pp 482–503
Li HX, Wang CS, Hue XM (2005) Stratigraphy of deep-water Cretaceous deposits in Gyangze, southern Tibet, China. Creta Res 26:33–41
Li J, Hu X, Garzanti E, An W, Wang J (2015) Paleogene carbonate microfacies and sandstone provenance (Gamba area, South Tibet): stratigraphic response to initial India-Asia continental collision. J Asian Earth Sci 104:39–54
Liu G, Einsele G (1994) Sedimentary history of the Tethyan basin in the Tibetan Himalayas. Geol Rundsch 83:32–61
Logan BW, Semeniuk V (1976) Dynamic metamorphism; processes and products in Devonian carbonate rocks, Canning Basin. Geological Society of Australia, Sydney (special publication no. 6)
Lucas G (1955) Caractères pétrographiques de calcaires noduleux, à faciès ammonitico rosso, de la region méditerranéenne. CR Hebd Séance Acad Sci 240:1909–1911
McCrossan RG (1958) Sedimentary “boudinage” structure in the Upper Devonian Ireton Formation of Alberta. J Sediment Petrol 28:316–320
Möller NK, Kvingan K (1988) The genesis of nodular limestones in the Ordovician and Silurian of the Oslo Region (Norway). Sedimentol 35:405–420
Müller J, Fabricius F (1974) Magnesian-calcite nodules in the Ionian deep sea: an actualistic model for the formation of some nodular limestone. In: Hsü KJ, Jenkyns HC (eds) Pelagic sediments: on land and under the sea. Spec Pub Int Ass Sediment, New Cork, pp 235–247
Munnecke A, Samtleben C (1996) The formation of micritic limestones and the development of limestone-marl alternations in the Silurian of Gotland, Sweden. Facies 34:159–176
Munnecke A, Westphal H (2004) Schwankende Umweltbedingungen des südwestdeutschen Oberjura dokumentiert in Kalk-Mergel-Wechselfolgen. Jh Ges Natkd Württ, 160 Jahrg, 33–48
Munnecke A, Westphal H, Elrich M, Reijmer JJG (2001) The mineralogical composition of precursor sediments of calcareous rhythmites: a new approach. Int J Earth Sci 40:795–812
Noble JPA, Howells KDM (1974) Early marine lithification of the nodular limestones in the Silurian of New Brunswick. Sedimentol 21:597–609
Patra A, Singh BP (2015) Facies characteristics and depositional environments of the Paleocene–Eocene strata of the Jaisalmer basin, western India. Carbonates Evaporites 30:331–346
Raiswell R (1988) Chemical model for the origin of minor limestone-shale cycles by anaerobic methane oxidation. Geol 16:641–644
Ratschbacher L, Frisch W, Liu G, Chen G (1994) Distributed deformation in southern and western Tibet during and after the India-Asia collision. J Geophys Res 99(B10):19917–19945
Reinhardt EG, Cavazza W, Patterson RT, Blenkinsop J (2000) Differential diagenesis of sedimentary components and the implication for strontium isotope analysis of carbonate rocks. Chem Geol 164:331–343
Reiss Z, Hottinger L (1984) The Gulf of Aqaba—ecological micropaleontology. Springer Verlag, Berlin
Ricken W (1986) Diagenetic Bedding: a model for limestone-marl alternations. Lecture Notes in earth sciences. Springer, Berlin
Ricken W (1987) The carbonate compaction law: a new tool. Sedim 34:571–584
Ricken W, Eder W (1991) Diagenetic modification of calcareous beds—an overview. In: Ricken W, Seilacher A (eds) Einsele G. Cycles and events in stratigraphy, Springer, pp 430–449
Schindewolf OH (1921) Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Kramenzelkalke und ihrer Entstehung. Geol Rundsch 12:20–35
Schindewolf OH (1923) Nochmals zur Kramenzelkalkfrage. Geol Rundsch 14:151–154
Schindewolf OH (1925) Einige Bemerkungen zur Entstehung der oberdevonischen Kramenzelgesteine. Zentralbl Mineral Geol Palaeontol 16:405–411
Schlager M (1966) Bericht 1965 über geologische Arbeiten auf den Blättern Berchtesgaden (93) und Hallein (94). Verh geol B-A 1966:A50–A54
Swart PK (2015) The geochemistry of carbonate diagenesis: the past, present and future. Sedimentol 62:1233–1304
Tucker ME (1974) Sedimentology of Paleozoic pelagic limestones: the Devonian Griotte (Southern France) and Cephalopodenkalk (Germany). In: Hsü KJ, Jenkyns HC (eds) Pelagic sediments: on land and under the sea. Spec Pub Int Ass Sediment, New Cork, pp 71–92
Tucker ME, Wright VP (2008) Carbonate sedimentology. Blackwell Science, London
von Engelhardt W (1973) Die Bildung von Sedimenten und Sedimentgesteinen. Sediment-Petrologie Teil 3. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele und Obermiller), Stuttgart, vol 6, pp 1–378
Wanless HR (1979) Limestone response to stress: pressure solution and dolomitization. J Sediment Petrol 49:437–462
Westphal H, Head MJ, Munnecke A (2000) Differential diagenesis of rhythmic limestone alternations supported by palynological evidence. J Sediment Res 70:715–725
Willems H (1993) Geoscientific investigations in the Tethyan Himalaya. Fachbereich Geowissenschaften, Universität Bremen, Nr, Berichte, p 38
Willems H, Zhou Z, Zhang B, Gräfe K-U (1996) Stratigraphy of the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary strata in the Tethyan Himalayas of Tibet (Tingri area, China). Geol Rundsch 85:723–754
Wray JL (1977) Calcareous algae. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Yin A, Harrison TM (2000) Geologic evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogeny. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 28:211–280
Zachos JC, Stott LD, Lohmann KC (1994) Evolution of Early Cenozoic marine temperatures. Paleoceanography 9:353–387
Zankl H (1969) Structural and textural evidence of early lithification in fine grained carbonate rock. Sedimentol 12:241–256
Zhang Q, Willems H, Ding L, Gräfe K-U, Appel E (2012) Initial India-Asia continental collision and foreland basin evolution in the Tethyan Himalaya of Tibet: evidence from stratigraphy and paleontology. J Geol 120:175–189
Zhang Q, Willems H, Ding L (2013) Evolution of the Paleocene-Early Eocene larger benthic foraminifera in the Tethyan Himalaya of Tibet, China. Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) 102:1427–1445
Zhang Q, Wendler I, Xu X, Willems H, Ding L (2017) Structure and magnitude of the carbon isotope excursion during the Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum. Gondwana Res 46:114–123
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. Q. Zhang, F. Wieseler, A. Hübner and C. Schott for their assistance with field and laboratory work. We gratefully thank the reviewers for their critical remarks and thorough review of the manuscript. This project is part of the priority program 1372 Tibetan Plateau: Formation–Climate–Ecosystem (TiP) and is funded by the German Science Foundation (DFG Wi725/29) and the University of Bremen (Germany).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kahsnitz, M.M., Willems, H. Genesis of Paleocene and Lower Eocene shallow-water nodular limestone of South Tibet (China). Carbonates Evaporites 34, 199–218 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-017-0360-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-017-0360-7