Abstract
Objectives
Self-compassion has consistently been linked to positive health outcomes. Emerging evidence has been gathered that reveals self-warmth and self-coldness as two distinctive components of self-compassion in cultures that embrace dialecticism (i.e., a belief that change is constant, contradictions coexist, and everything is interconnected). Each of these components contributed unique variances in explaining health outcomes. While self-compassion may be particularly relevant for the stigmatized population such as lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) people given their exposure to and internationalization of public stigma, little evidence has been gathered to clarify the links of self-compassion, proximal stressors, and well-being among LGB people in dialectical cultures.
Method
Using a sample of 505 LGB adults in Hong Kong, this study examined how the two self-compassion components were linked to life satisfaction via proximal stressors and whether the self-compassion dimensions moderated the links between proximal stressors and life satisfaction.
Results
Results indicated that internalized homonegativity partially mediated the association between components of self-compassion (i.e., self-warmth and self-coldness) and life satisfaction. The association between self-coldness and life satisfaction was also partially mediated by acceptance concerns. Self-coldness also moderated the associations of internalized homonegativity and acceptance concerns with life satisfaction, such that internalized homonegativity and acceptance concerns were only negatively associated with life satisfaction when self-coldness was high.
Conclusions
Our study shows that supporting LGB people in dialectical cultures to cultivate self-compassion may involve separate processes: acknowledging the survival functions of self-coldness while fostering self-warmth.
Preregistration
This study is not pre-registered.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Data used in this study are part of an ongoing longitudinal research project. The data set is currently being analyzed and is not publicly available at this time.
References
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
Beard, K., Eames, C., & Withers, P. (2017). The role of self-compassion in the well-being of self-identifying gay men. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Mental Health, 21, 77–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2016.1233163
Brenner, R. E., Heath, P. J., Vogel, D. L., & Credé, M. (2017). Two is more valid than one: Examining the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64, 696–707. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000211
Brenner, R. E., Vogel, D. L., Lannin, D. G., Engel, K. E., Seidman, A. J., & Heath, P. J. (2018). Do self-compassion and self-coldness distinctly relate to distress and well-being? A theoretical model of self-relating. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65, 346–357. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000257
Brown-Beresford, E., & McLaren, S. (2022). The relationship between self-compassion, internalized heterosexism, and depressive symptoms among bisexual and lesbian women. Journal of Bisexuality, 22, 90–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2021.2004483
Buz, J., Crego, A., Yela, J. R., Sánchez-Zaballos, E., & Ayuso, A. (2022). Should we use a total score, two subscale scores, or six subscale scores for the Self-Compassion Scale? A multi-faceted assessment beyond model fit indices. Mindfulness, 13, 1793–1803. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01917-4
Carvalho, S. A., & Guiomar, R. (2022). Self-compassion and mental health in sexual and gender minority people: A systematic review and meta-analysis. LGBT Health, 9, 287–302. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2021.0434
Chan, R. C. H., & Leung, J. S. Y. (2022). Monosexism as an additional dimension of minority stress affecting mental health among bisexual and pansexual individuals in Hong Kong: The role of gender and sexual identity integration. The Journal of Sex Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2022.2119546
Chan, R. C. H., & Mak, W. W. S. (2021). Resistance as a form of resilience in sexual and gender minorities: Differential moderating roles of collective action on the discrimination–depression relationship among sexual minority men and women. Social Science & Medicine, 280, 114056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114056
Chan, K. K. S., Yung, C. S. W., & Nie, G. M. (2020). Self-compassion buffers the negative psychological impact of stigma stress on sexual minorities. Mindfulness, 11, 2338–2348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01451-1
Chandler, S. L. L. (2013). Can self-compassion be induced to reduce sexual minority stigma and protect psychological functioning? (Order No. 1524015) [Master's thesis, East Tennessee State University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. Retrieved February 10, 2023, from https://www.proquest.com/docview/1442772738
Charlemagne-Badal, S. J., Lee, J. W., Butler, T. L., & Fraser, G. E. (2015). Conceptual domains included in wellbeing and life satisfaction instruments: A review. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 10, 305–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-014-9306-6
Chio, F. H. N., Mak, W. W. S., & Yu, B. C. L. (2021). Meta-analytic review on the differential effects of self-compassion components on well-being and psychological distress: The moderating role of dialecticism on self-compassion. Clinical Psychology Review, 85, 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.101986
Chong, E. S., Zhang, Y., Mak, W. W., & Pang, I. H. (2015). Social media as social capital of LGB individuals in Hong Kong: Its relations with group membership, stigma, and mental well-being. American Journal of Community Psychology, 55, 228–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-014-9699-2
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.112.1.155
Costa, J., Marôco, J., Pinto-Gouveia, J., Ferreira, C., & Castilho, P. (2016). Validation of the psychometric properties of the self-compassion scale. Testing the factorial validity and factorial invariance of the measure among borderline personality disorder, anxiety disorder, eating disorder and general populations. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 23, 460–468. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1974
Crowell, K. A., Galliher, R. V., Dehlin, J., & Bradshaw, W. S. (2015). Specific aspects of minority stress associated with depression among LDS affiliated non-heterosexual adults. Journal of Homosexuality, 62, 242–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2014.969611
de Oliveira, J. M., Lopes, D., Costa, C. G., & Nogueira, C. (2012). Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identity Scale (LGBIS): Construct validation, sensitivity analyses and other psychometric properties. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 15, 334–347. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_SJOP.2012.v15.n1.37340
Denton, F. N., Rostosky, S. S., & Danner, F. (2014). Stigma-related stressors, coping self-efficacy, and physical health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61, 383–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036707
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003035312-41
Doyle, D. M., Qualter, P., Victor, C., & Barreto, M. (2022). The impact of country-level structural stigma on loneliness and social capital in older and younger LGB individuals in 113 countries: Dinah Gutermuth. European Journal of Public Health, 32(Supplement_3), ckac129.193. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckac129.193
Frable, D. E. S., Wortman, C., & Joseph, J. (1997). Predicting self-esteem, well-being, and distress in a cohort of gay men: The importance of cultural stigma, personal visibility, community networks, and positive identity. Journal of Personality, 65, 599–624. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1997.tb00328.x
Gertler, L. M. (2014). The coming out experience, internalized homophobia and self-compassion in LGBQ young adults (Publication No. 3663383) [Doctoral dissertation, The Wright Institute]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Retrieved February 10, 2023, from https://www.proquest.com/docview/1696048429
Ghavami, N., Fingerhut, A., Peplau, L. A., Grant, S. K., & Wittig, M. A. (2011). Testing a model of minority identity achievement, identity affirmation, and psychological well-being among ethnic minority and sexual minority individuals. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17, 79–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022532
Gilbert, P. (Ed.). (2005). Compassion Conceptualisations, research and use in psychotherapy. Routledge.
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Matos, M., & Rivis, A. (2011). Fears of compassion: Development of three self-report measures. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 84, 239–255. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608310X526511
Greene, D. C., & Britton, P. J. (2015). Predicting adult LGBTQ happiness: Impact of childhood affirmation, self-compassion, and personal mastery. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 9, 158–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2015.1068143
Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma “get under the skin”? A psychological mediation framework. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 707–730. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016441
Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2016). Structural stigma: Research evidence and implications for psychological science. American Psychologist, 71, 742. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000068
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Jennings, L. K., & Tan, P. P. (2014). Self-compassion and life satisfaction in gay men. Psychological Reports, 115, 888–895. https://doi.org/10.2466/21.07.PR0.115c33z3
Keng, S. L., & Liew, K. W. L. (2017). Trait mindfulness and self-compassion as moderators of the association between gender nonconformity and psychological health. Mindfulness, 8, 615–626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0639-0
Körner, A., Coroiu, A., Copeland, L., Gomez-Garibello, C., Albani, C., Zenger, M., & Brähler, E. (2015). The role of self-compassion in buffering symptoms of depression in the general population. PLoS ONE, 10, e01420274. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142027
LaDuke, S. L. (2016). Exploring protective factors among lesbians, gays, and bisexuals: A framework for psychological well-being and relative influence (Publication No. 3130) [Doctoral dissertation, East Tennessee State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Retrieved February 10, 2023, from https://www.proquest.com/docview/1844393345
Liao, K. Y. H., Kashubeck-West, S., Weng, C. Y., & Deitz, C. (2015). Testing a mediation framework for the link between perceived discrimination and psychological distress among sexual minority individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62, 226–241. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000064
Lin, Y. J., Israel, T., & Ryan, W. S. (2019). Releasing internalized stigma for empowerment: Development of theory-driven interventions for sexual and gender minorities. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 13, 276–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2019.1662358
López, A., Sanderman, R., Smink, A., Zhang, Y., Van Sonderen, E., Ranchor, A., & Schroevers, M. J. (2015). A reconsideration of the self-compassion scale’s total score: Self-compassion versus self-criticism. PLoS ONE, 10, e0132940. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132940
Ma, G. Y., & Mak, W. W. (2022). Associations of perceived stigma, perceived environmental inaccessibility, and self-compassion among people with physical disability in Hong Kong. Disability and Health Journal, 15, 101274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2022.101274
MacBeth, A., & Gumley, A. (2012). Exploring compassion: A meta-analysis of the association between self-compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 32, 545–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CPR.2012.06.003
Matos, M., Carvalho, S. A., Cunha, M., Galhardo, A., & Sepodes, C. (2017). Psychological flexibility and self-compassion in gay and heterosexual men: How they relate to childhood memories, shame, and depressive symptoms. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 11, 88–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2017.1310007
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
Mohr, J. J., & Kendra, M. S. (2011). Revision and extension of a multidimensional measure of sexual minority identity: The lesbian, gay, and bisexual identity scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 234–245. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022858
Mohr, J. J., & Sarno, E. L. (2016). The ups and downs of being lesbian, gay, and bisexual: A daily experience perspective on minority stress and support processes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63, 106–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000125
Muris, P., & Otgaar, H. (2022). Deconstructing self-compassion: How the continued use of the total score of the self-compassion scale hinders studying a protective construct within the context of psychopathology and stress. Mindfulness, 13, 1403–1409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01898-4
Muris, P., & Petrocchi, N. (2017). Protection or vulnerability? A meta-analysis of the relations between the positive and negative components of self-compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 24, 373–383. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2005
Muris, P., Otgaar, H., & Petrocchi, N. (2016). Protection as the mirror image of psychopathology: Further critical notes on the Self-Compassion Scale. Mindfulness, 7, 787–790. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0509-9
Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2, 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
Neff, K. D. (2016). The self-compassion scale is a valid and theoretically coherent measure of self-compassion. Mindfulness, 7, 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0479-3
Neff, K. D. (2023). Self-compassion: Theory, method, research, and intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 74, 193–218. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031047
Pachankis, J. E., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Bränström, R., Schmidt, A. J., Berg, R. C., Jonas, K., Pitoňák, M., Baros, S., & Weatherburn, P. (2021). Structural stigma and sexual minority men’s depression and suicidality: A multilevel examination of mechanisms and mobility across 48 countries. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 130, 713–726. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000693
Pascoe, E., & Smart-Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 531–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016059.Perceived
Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (1999). Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psychologist, 54, 741. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.9.741
Perales, F., & Todd, A. (2018). Structural stigma and the health and wellbeing of Australian LGB populations: Exploiting geographic variation in the results of the 2017 same-sex marriage plebiscite. Social Science & Medicine, 208, 190–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.05.015
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 539–569. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100452
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879-891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
Preacher, K. J., & Kelley, K. (2011). Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16, 93–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/A0022658
Puckett, J. A., Levitt, H. M., Horne, S. G., & Hayes-Skelton, S. A. (2015). Internalized heterosexism and psychological distress: The mediating roles of self-criticism and community connectedness. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2, 426-435. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000123
Raes, F., Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., & Van Gucht, D. (2011). Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the Self-Compassion Scale. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 18, 250–255. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.702
Rogers, W. M., & Schmitt, N. (2004). Parameter recovery and model fit using multidimensional composites: A comparison of four empirical parceling algorithms. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 379-412. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327906MBR3903_1
Schimmack, U., Oishi, S., & Diener, E. (2002). Cultural influences on the relation between pleasant emotions and unpleasant emotions: Asian dialectic philosophies or individualism-collectivism? Cognition & Emotion, 16, 705–719. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000590
Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., & Garcia, A. (2014). The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 921–948. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035754
Skinta, M. D., Lezama, M., Wells, G., & Dilley, J. W. (2015). Acceptance and compassion-based group therapy to reduce HIV stigma. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 22, 481–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2014.05.006
Skinta, M. D., Fekete, E. M., & Williams, S. L. (2018). HIV-stigma, self-compassion, and psychological well-being among gay men living with HIV. Stigma and Health, 4, 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1037/sah0000133
Spencer-Rodgers, J., Boucher, H. C., Peng, K., & Wang, L. (2009). Cultural differences in self-verification: The role of naïve dialecticism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 860–866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.004
Suen, Y. T., Wong, E. M. Y., & Chan, R. C. H. (2022). Experiences of COVID-19 among Chinese-speaking lesbian, gay and bisexual people in Hong Kong: An inductive thematic analysis of survey response data. Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters, 30, 2102537. https://doi.org/10.1080/26410397.2022.2102537
Szymanski, D. M., Dunn, T. L., & Ikizler, A. S. (2014). Multiple minority stressors and psychological distress among sexual minority women: The roles of rumination and maladaptive coping. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1, 412–421. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000066
Test, M. A., Greenberg, J. S., Long, J. D., Brekke, J. S., & Burke, S. S. (2005). Construct validity of a measure of subjective satisfaction with life of adults with serious mental illness. Psychiatric Services, 56, 292–300. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.56.3.292
Vigna, A. J., Poehlmann-Tynan, J., & Koenig, B. W. (2017). Does self-compassion facilitate resilience to stigma? A school-based study of sexual and gender minority youth. Mindfulness, 9, 914–924. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0831-x
Williams, S. L., Mann, A. K., & Fredrick, E. G. (2017). Proximal minority stress, psychosocial resources, and health in sexual minorities. Journal of Social Issues, 73, 529–544. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12230
Wong, C. C. Y., Knee, C. R., Neighbors, C., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2019). Hacking stigma by loving yourself: A mediated-moderation model of self-compassion and stigma. Mindfulness, 10, 415–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0984-2
Yadavaia, J. E., & Hayes, S. C. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy for self-stigma around sexual orientation: A multiple baseline evaluation. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 19, 545–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2011.09.002
Yang, X., & Mak, W. W. S. (2017). The differential moderating roles of self-compassion and mindfulness in self-stigma and well-being among people living with mental illness or HIV. Mindfulness, 8, 595–602. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0635-4
Yeo, T. E. D., & Chu, T. H. (2018). Beyond homonegativity: Understanding Hong Kong people’s attitudes about social acceptance of gay/lesbian people, sexual orientation discrimination protection, and same-sex marriage. Journal of Homosexuality, 65, 1372–1390. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2017.1375363
Yip, V. T., & Tong, M. W. E. (2020). Self-compassion and attention: self-compassion facilitates disengagement from negative stimuli. Journal of Positive Psychology, 16, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2020.1778060
Zessin, U., Dickhäuser, O., & Garbade, S. (2015). The relationship between self-compassion and well-being: A meta-analysis. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 7, 340–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12051
Acknowledgements
We appreciated Han Chen for her administrative support during the manuscript preparation.
Funding
The writing of this manuscript was supported by the Seed Fund for Basic Research awarded from The University of Hong Kong to ESKC (Principal Investigator), project number 202107185039.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design, reviewed and edited the manuscript. ESKC led the writing of the original draft. RCHC conducted data analysis and wrote the Method and Results sections of the original draft.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
This article does not involve human or animal participants. Secondary analysis of existing data was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Education University of Hong Kong.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Chong, E.S.K., Chan, R.C.H. The Role of Self-Compassion in Minority Stress Processes and Life Satisfaction among Sexual Minorities in Hong Kong. Mindfulness 14, 784–796 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02106-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02106-7