EEG Characteristics During Mindfulness Meditation Among Buddhist Monks in a Sri Lankan Forest Monastery

Marasinghe, Chamil; Tennakoon, Varuni; Mahawithanage, Sanath T. C.

doi:10.1007/s12671-021-01762-x

ORIGINAL PAPER
Published: 25 September 2021

EEG Characteristics During Mindfulness Meditation Among Buddhist Monks in a Sri Lankan Forest Monastery

Mindfulness volume 12, pages 3026–3035 (2021)Cite this article

357 Accesses
Metrics details

Abstract

Objectives

This study provides an analysis of EEG patterns during a Vipassana mindfulness meditation session among Buddhist monks who strictly follow the original teachings of Buddhist doctrine.

Methods

A continuous EEG recording was obtained from Buddhist monks of the “Meethirigala Nissarana Vanaya” forest monastery in Sri Lanka during a Vipassana meditation session that lasted 40 min. Mean amplitudes obtained from FFT at the beginning, at 5-min intervals, and at the end of meditation session, were analyzed with paired t-test. Parametric t statistics of the EEGLAB FieldTrip tool were used for spectral analysis.

Results

All 18 participants were right-handed males. The mean age was 41.4 years (SD 17.5). A progressive increase in the mean amplitude of the entire brain was noted during mindfulness meditation (p = .005). Theta (p = .013), alpha (p = .017), and gamma (p = .030) were significantly high at the end compared to the beginning of meditation. The increment was observed, as progressive for theta, early and late peaks for alpha and at the end for gamma frequencies. Theta activation and alpha activation were observed at the left occipital region and gamma activation at frontal, central, temporal, and occipital regions of both sides of the brain.

Conclusions

Progressive increment of brainpower was noted during the session of mindfulness meditation. Unique theta, alpha, and gamma activation patterns could be specific for meditative transitions of Vipassana.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Data Availability

The data generated in this research are confidential. Selected data are available upon request.

References

Aftanas, L. I., & Golocheikine, S. A. (2001). Human anterior and frontal midline theta and lower alpha reflect emotionally positive state and internalized attention: High-resolution EEG investigation of meditation. Neuroscience Letters, 310(1), 57–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3940(01)02094-8
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Ahani, A., Wahbeh, H., Nezamfar, H., Miller, M., Erdogmus, D., & Oken, B. (2014). Quantitative change of EEG and respiration signals during mindfulness meditation. Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation, 11(1), 87. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-0003-11-87
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Ahani, A., Wahbeh, H., Miller, M., Nezamfar, H., Erdogmus, D., & Oken, B. (2013). Change in physiological signals during mindfulness meditation. 2013 6th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering (NER) pp. 1378–1381. https://doi.org/10.1109/NER.2013.6696199.
Baijal, S., & Srinivasan, N. (2010). Theta activity and meditative states: Spectral changes during concentrative meditation. Cognitive Processing, 11(1), 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-009-0272-0
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Berkovich-Ohana, A., Glicksohn, J., & Goldstein, A. (2014). Studying the default mode and its mindfulness-induced changes using EEG functional connectivity. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(10), 1616–1624. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst153
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Braboszcz, C., & Delorme, A. (2011). Lost in thoughts: Neural markers of low alertness during mind wandering. NeuroImage, 54(4), 3040–3047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.008
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Braboszcz, C., Cahn, B. R., Levy, J., Fernandez, M., & Delorme, A. (2017). Increased gamma brainwave amplitude compared to control in three different meditation traditions. PLoS ONE, 12(1), e0170647–e0170647. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170647
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Burgess, A. P., & Ali, L. (2002). Functional connectivity of gamma EEG activity is modulated at low frequency during conscious recollection. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 46(2), 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8760(02)00108-3
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Cahn, B. R., Delorme, A., & Polich, J. (2010). Occipital gamma activation during Vipassana meditation. Cognitive Processessing, 11(1), 39–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-009-0352-1
Article Google Scholar
Chan, A. S., Han, Y. M., & Cheung, M. C. (2008). Electroencephalographic (EEG) measurements of mindfulness-based Triarchic body-pathway relaxation technique: A pilot study. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 33(1), 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-008-9050-5
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Dunn, B. R., Hartigan, J. A., & Mikulas, W. L. (1999). Concentration and mindfulness meditations: Unique forms of consciousness? Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 24(3), 147–165.
Article Google Scholar
Fucci, E., Abdoun, O., Caclin, A., Francis, A., Dunne, J. D., Ricard, M., Davidson, R. J., & Lutz, A. (2018). Differential effects of non-dual and focused attention meditations on the formation of automatic perceptual habits in expert practitioners. Neuropsychologia, 119, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.07.025
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Gunaratana, H. (1992). Mindfulness in plain English. Wisdom Publications.
Gunaratana, H. (2012). The four foundations of mindfulness in plain English. Wisdom Publications.
Hauswald, A., Ubelacker, T., Leske, S., & Weisz, N. (2015). What it means to be Zen: Marked modulations of local and interareal synchronization during open monitoring meditation. NeuroImage, 108, 265–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.12.065
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Ishii, R., Canuet, L., Ishihara, T., Aoki, Y., Ikeda, S., Hata, M., Katsimichas, T., Gunji, A., Takahashi, H., Nakahachi, T., Iwase, M., & Takeda, M. (2014). Frontal midline theta rhythm and gamma power changes during focused attention on mental calculation: An MEG beamformer analysis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 406. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00406
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Jensen, O., & Tesche, C. D. (2002). Frontal theta activity in humans increases with memory load in a working memory task. European Journal of Neuroscience, 15(8), 1395–1399. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-9568.2002.01975.x
Article Google Scholar
Jensen, O., Gelfand, J., Kounios, J., & Lisman, J. E. (2002). Oscillations in the alpha band (9–12 Hz) increase with memory load during retention in a short-term memory task. Cerebral Cortex, 12(8), 877–882. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/12.8.877
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Kasamatsu, A., & Hirai, T. (1966). An electroencephalographic study on the Zen meditation (Zazen). Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 20, 315–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1819.1966.tb02646.x
Article Google Scholar
Kerr, C., Sacchet, M., Lazar, S., Moore, C., & Jones, S. (2013). Mindfulness starts with the body: Somatosensory attention and top-down modulation of cortical alpha rhythms in mindfulness meditation. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7(12). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00012
Kubota, Y., Sato, W., Toichi, M., Murai, T., Okada, T., Hayashi, A., & Sengoku, A. (2001). Frontal midline theta rhythm is correlated with cardiac autonomic activities during the performance of an attention demanding meditation procedure. Cognitive Brain Research, 11(2), 281–287.
Article Google Scholar
Lagopoulos, J., Xu, J., Rasmussen, I., Vik, A., Malhi, G., Eliassen, C., Arntsen, I., Saether, J., Hollup, S., Holen, A., Davanger, S., & Ellingsen, Ø. (2009). Increased theta and alpha EEG activity during nondirective meditation. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine (New York, N.Y.), 15, 1187–1192. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2009.0113
Lehmann, D., Faber, P. L., Tei, S., Pascual-Marqui, R. D., Milz, P., & Kochi, K. (2012). Reduced functional connectivity between cortical sources in five meditation traditions detected with lagged coherence using EEG tomography. NeuroImage, 60(2), 1574–1586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.042
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Lutz, A., Greischar, L. L., Rawlings, N. B., Ricard, M., & Davidson, R. J. (2004). Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A, 101(46), 16369–16373. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0407401101
Article Google Scholar
Murata, T., Koshino, Y., Omori, M., Murata, I., Nishio, M., Sakamoto, K., Horie, T., & Isaki, K. (1994). Quantitative EEG study on Zen meditation (Zazen). Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 48. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1819.1994.tb03090.x
Neurovirtual. (2017). Catalog BWIII Retrieved 12th May from https://www.neurovirtual.com
Nissarana Vanaya. Retrieved 1st January from www.nssarana.lk
Nyanaponika, T. (2014). The heart of Buddhist meditation. Weiser Books.
Sahni, P., & Kumar, J. (2020). Effect of nature experience on fronto-parietal correlates of neurocognitive processes involved in directed attention: An ERP study. Annals of Neurosciences, 27(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/0972753121990143
Schoenberg, P. L. A., Ruf, A., Churchill, J., Brown, D. P., & Brewer, J. A. (2018). Mapping complex mind states: EEG neural substrates of meditative unified compassionate awareness. Consciousness and Cognition, 57, 41–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2017.11.003
Article PubMed Google Scholar
van Vugt, M. K., Pollock, J., Johnson, B., Gyatso, K., Norbu, N., Lodroe, T., Gyaltsen, T., Phuntsok, L., Thakchoe, J., Khechok, J., Lobsang, J., Tenzin, L., Gyaltsen, J., Moye, A., & Fresco, D. M. (2020). Inter-brain synchronization in the practice of Tibetan monastic debate. Mindfulness, 11, 1105–1119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01338-1
Article Google Scholar

Download references

Acknowledgements

Authors express sincere gratitude to Most Venerable U. Dhammajiva Maha Thero, the Chief preceptor of Meethirigala Nissarana Vanaya forest monastery, for granting required permission and Venerable Panadure Chandaratana Thero for administrative assistance. Authors also gratefully acknowledge the support of all the participant monks.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
Chamil Marasinghe
Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
Varuni Tennakoon
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
Sanath T. C. Mahawithanage

Authors

Chamil Marasinghe
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Varuni Tennakoon
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Sanath T. C. Mahawithanage
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

CM: designed and executed the study, analyzed data, and wrote the paper. VT: collaborated with material preparation, data analysis and writing the final manuscript. SM: collaborated with material preparation, data collection and editing of final manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chamil Marasinghe.

Ethics declarations

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ethics Review Committee of the Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka (Reg. No. 23/18). The study was done in accordance with the national ethical standards. Informed written consent was taken from all participants prior to recruitment and before all procedures in this study.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Marasinghe, C., Tennakoon, V. & Mahawithanage, S.T.C. EEG Characteristics During Mindfulness Meditation Among Buddhist Monks in a Sri Lankan Forest Monastery. Mindfulness 12, 3026–3035 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-021-01762-x

Download citation

Accepted: 16 September 2021
Published: 25 September 2021
Issue Date: December 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-021-01762-x

Keywords

Buddhist monks
Mindfulness meditation
EEG
Vipassana