Abstract
Seepage erosion in loess is closely related to the internal mechanism on which various geological disasters in loess depend. Because of its special microstructure, characteristics such as agglomeration structure and matrix cementation, loess has strong water sensitivity, which also determines that loess has complex and unique seepage erosion characteristics. However, there is still a lack of numerical methods suitable for characterizing loess seepage erosion. Therefore, in this study, a fluid solver is established in PFC program to realize fluid–solid coupling. It can solve Navier–Stokes equation and transfer data between Discrete Element Method (DEM) and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) module. In addition, a parallel bond cementation method based on loess microstructure model is established, which enables the numerical model to simulate the matrix cementation characteristics of loess. Finally, the microscopic parameters of the numerical model are calibrated by macro-mechanical tests, and a numerical seepage model similar to the actual loess is successfully established. The results of actual seepage test and numerical seepage simulation show that the response and mechanism of loess with different dry densities to hydraulic erosion are different. When the dry density is small, the erosion is obvious. It is characterized by the fracture of cementation bond between particles and a large erosion movement distance. With the increase of dry density, erosion gradually decreases. It shows that the contact between particles is slightly deformed and the particles do not move. In addition, with the increase of osmotic pressure, the erosion rate and erosion degree increase.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable requirements.
References
An P, Zhang AJ, Liu HT, Wang T (2013) Degradation mechanism of long-term seepage and permeability analysis of remolded saturated loess. Rock Soil Mech 34(7):1965–1971. https://doi.org/10.16285/j.rsm.2013.07.034. (in Chinese)
Bai XH, Wang MR, Jia J (2014) Micro-structure and collapsibility of loess in China. Geology. https://doi.org/10.1201/B17395-235
Bernatek-Jakiel A, Poesen J (2018) Subsurface erosion by soil piping: significance and research needs. Earth Sci Rev 185:1107–1128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.08.006
Bettersize (2000) Laser particle size distribution analyzer. Dandong Bettersize Instruments Ltd. https://bettersize.com.cn/
Borges Neto IO, Xavier RA, de Souza BI, Santos LJC, Soares DA, de Souza JJLL (2023) Preliminary experimental data on surface runoff and soil loss in the Caatinga. Earth Surf Process Landforms. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.5581
Bouddour A, Auriault JL, Mhamdi-Alaoui M (1996) Erosion and deposition of solid particles in porous media: homogenization analysis of a formation damage. Transp Porous Med 25:121–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00135852
Chen WZ, Ma YS, Yu HD, Li FF, Li XL, Sillen X (2017) Effects of temperature and thermally-induced microstructure change on hydraulic conductivity of Boom Clay. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 9:383–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2017.03.006
Chen Y, Qian H, Hou K, Zhang QY, Zhang YT (2021) Permeability and paleoenvironmental implications of loess-paleosol sequence from Jingyang Loess Plateau. Environ Earth Sci 80:18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-020-09282-y
Cheng YP, Bolton MD, Nakatam Y (2004) Crushing and particle deformation of soils simulated using DEM. Géotechnique 54:131–141. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2004.54.2.131
Cundall PA, Hart RD (1992) Numerical modeling of discontinua. J Engr Comp 9:101–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-040615-2.50015-0
Cundall PA, Strack ODL (1979) A discrete numerical model for granular assemblies. Géotechnique 29:47–65. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1979.29.1.47
Deng SX, Zheng YL, Feng LP, Zhu PY, Ni Y (2019) Application of design of experiments in microscopic parameter calibration for hard rocks of PFC3D model. Chin J Geotech Eng 41(4):655–664. https://doi.org/10.11779/CJGE201904008. (in Chinese)
Derbyshire E, Meng XM, Dijkstra TA, Wiley J (2002) Landslides in the thick loess terrain of North-West China. Geol Today. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2451.2002.03438.x
Di Felice R (1994) The voidage function for fluid-particle interaction systems. Int J Multiph Flow 20(1):153–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9322(94)90011-6
Gao YY, Qian H, Li XY, Chen J, Jia H (2018) Effects of lime treatment on the hydraulic conductivity and microstructure of loess. Environ Earth Sci 77(14):529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7715-9
Gu DM, Liu H, Huang D, Zhang WG, Gao XC (2020) Development of a modeling method and parametric study of seepage-induced erosion in clayey gravel. Int J Geomech 20(12):article 04020219. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001856
Hansbo S (2001) Consolidation equation valid for both Darcian and non-Darcian flow. Geotechnique 51(1):51–54. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2001.51.1.51
Hao YZ, Wang TH, Jin X, Cheng L, Li JL (2020) Experimental Study on the Saturated Compacted Loess Permeability under K0 Consolidation. Adv Civ Eng 2020:16. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/1426485. (Article 1426485)
Hong B, Li XA, Wang L, Li LC (2018) Discussion on applicability of capillary seepage models to loess permeability. J Eng Geol 26(5):1250–1256. https://doi.org/10.13544/j.cnki.jeg.2018023. (in Chinese)
Hong B, Li XA, Wang L, Li LC (2019) Temporal variation in the permeability anisotropy behavior of the Malan loess in northern Shaanxi Province, China: an experimental study. Environ Earth Sci 78:447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8449-z
Itasca Consulting Group Inc. (2011) UDEC (Universal Distinct Element Code), Version 5.0. Minneapolis:ICG.
Jiang MJ, Zhang WC, Sun YG, Utili S (2013) An investiga-tion on loose cemented granular materials via DEM analyses. Granular Matter 15(1):65–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10035-012-0382-8
Jiang MJ, Li T, Thornton C, Hu HJ (2017a) Wetting-induced collapse behavior of unsaturated and structural loess under biaxial tests using distinct element method. Int J Geomech 17(1):06016010. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000693
Jiang MJ, Zhang FG, Hu HJ (2017b) DEM modeling mechanical behavior of unsaturated structural loess under constant stress increment ratio compression tests. Int J Geomech. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000762
Kloss C, Goniva C, Hager A, Amberger S, Pirker S (2012) Models, algorithms and validation for opensource DEM and CFD-DEM. Progress Comput Fluid Dyn 12(2–3):140–152. https://doi.org/10.1504/PCFD.2012.047457
Leng YQ, Peng JB, Wang QY, Meng ZJ, Huang WL (2018) A fluidized landslide occurred in the Loess Plateau: a study on loess landslide in south Jingyang tableland. Eng Geol 236:129–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.05.006
Li YR (2018) A review of shear and tensile strengths of the Malan Loess in China. Eng Geol 236:4–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.02.023
Li XA, Li LC (2017) Quantification of the pore structures of Malan loess and the effects on loess permeability and environmental significance, Shaanxi Province, China: an experimental study. Environ Earth Sci 76:523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-6855-7
Li SB, Wang CM, Wang NQ, Wang GC, Yao K (2013a) Numerical simulation of loess triaxial shear test by PFC3D. China J Highway Transport 26(6):22–29. https://doi.org/10.19721/j.cnki.1001-7372.2013.06.004. (in Chinese)
Li YX, Zhu YP, Ye SH, He ZM (2013b) Analysis of foundation non-uniform settlement for building on collapsible loess. Appl Mech Mater 353–356:213–216. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.353-356.213
Li PY, Qian H, Wu JH (2014) Accelerate research on land creation. Nature 510:29–31. https://doi.org/10.1038/510029a
Li C, Yao D, Wang Z et al (2016) Model test on rainfall-induced loess–mudstone interfacial landslides in Qingshuihe, China. Environ Earth Sci 75:835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-5658-6
Li X-A, Li LC, Song YX, Hong B, Wang L, Sun JQ (2019) Characterization of the mechanisms underlying loess collapsibility for land-creation project in Shaanxi Province, China-a study from a micro perspective. Eng Geol 249:77–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.12.024
Li XA, Hong B, Wang L, Li LC, Sun JQ (2020a) Microanisotropy and preferred orientation of grains and aggregates (POGA) of the Malan loess in Yan’an, China: a profile study. Bull Eng Geol Environ 79:1893–1907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-019-01674-0
Li X-A, Wang L, Hong B, Li LC, Liu J, Lei HN (2020b) Erosion characteristics of loess tunnels on the Loess Plateau: a field investigation and experimental study. Earth Surf Process Landforms 45:1945–1958. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4857
Li X-A, Sun JQ, Ren HY, Lu T, Ren YB, Pang T (2022) The effect of particle size distribution and shape on the microscopic behaviour of loess via the DEM. Environ Earth Sci 81:290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10404-x
Li LC (2017) Experimental study on loess microstructure in Maran, Yan'an. Master's thesis. Chang'an University (in Chinese).
Liu W, Xu J, Jiang H, Wang J, Wang YX (2017) Deformation law and stability of high-filled loess foundation. Sci Technol Eng 17(22):295–300. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-1815.2017.22.047. (in Chinese)
Liu DS, An ZS, Wen QZ, Lu YL, Han JM, Wang JD, Diao GY (1978) Geological environment of Chinese loess. Chin Sci Bull (01):1–9+26 (in Chinese)
Lukić T, Bjelajac D, Fitzsimmons KE et al (2018) Factors triggering landslide occurrence on the Zemun loess plateau, Belgrade area. Serbia Environ Earth Sci 77:519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7712-z
Ma HQ, Zhou LY, Liu ZH, Chen MY, Xia XH, Zhao YZ (2022) A review of recent development for the CFD-DEM investigations of non-spherical particles. Powder Technol 412:117972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2022.117972
Meng J, Li XA (2019) Effects of carbonate on the structure and properties of loess and the corresponding mechanism: an experimental study of the Malan loess, Xi’an area, China. Bull Eng Geol Environ 78:4965–4976. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-018-01457-z
Pécsi M (1990) Loess is not just the accumulation of dust. Quat Int 7(90):1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/1040-6182(90)90034-2
Peng DL, Xu Q, Qi X, Fan XM, Dong XJ, Li S, Ju YZ (2016) Study on early recognition of loess landslides based on field investigation. Int J Geohazards Environ 2(2):32–52. https://doi.org/10.15273/ijge.2016.02.006
Peng JB, Wang GH, Wang QY, Zhang FY (2017) Shear wave velocity imaging of landslide debris deposited on an erodible bed and possible movement mechanism for a loess landslide in Jingyang, Xi’an China. Landslides 14(4):1503–1512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-017-0827-6
Peng JB, Fan ZJ, Wu D, Huang QB, Wang QY, Zhuang JQ, Che WY (2019a) Landslides triggered by excavation in the loess plateau of China: a case study of Middle Pleistocene loess slopes. J Asian Earth Sci 171:246–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2018.11.014
Peng JB, Wang SK, Wang QY, Zhuang JQ, Huang WL, Zhu XH, Leng YQ, Ma PH (2019b) Distribution and genetic types of loess landslides in China. J Asian Earth Sci 170:329–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2018.11.015
Pereyra María A, Fernández Diego S, Marcial Enzo R, Puchulu María E (2020) Agricultural land degradation by piping erosion in Chaco Plain, Northwestern Argentina. CATENA 185:104295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.104295
Poesen J (2018) Soil erosion in the Anthropocene: research needs. Earth Surf Process Landforms 43:64–84. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4250
Porter SC (2001) Chinese loess record of monsoon climate during the last glacial-interglacial cycle. Earth Sci Rev 54:115–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(01)00043-5
Potyondy DO (2011) “Parallel-Bond Refinements to Match Macroproperties of Hard Rock,”. In: Sainsbury D, Hart R, Detournay C and Nelson M (eds) Continuum and Distinct Element Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2011 (Proceedings of Second International FLAC/DEM Symposium, Melbourne, Australia, 14–16 February 2011), pp 459–465. ISBN 978-0-9767577-2-6. Minneapolis: Itasca International
Pozzetti G, Jasak H, Besseron X, Rousset A, Peters B (2019) A parallel dual-grid multiscale approach to CFD–DEM couplings. J Comput Phys 378:708–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcp.2018.11.030
Qiu JL, Lu YQ, Lai JX, Zhang YW, Yang T, Wang K (2020) Experimental study on the effect of water gushing on loess metro tunnel. Environ Earth Sci 79:261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-020-08995-4
Richthofen BF (1882) On the mode of origin of the Loess. Geol Mag 9(7):293–305. https://doi.org/10.1017/s001675680017164x
Sadeghi H, Kiani M, Sadeghi M, Jafarzadeh F (2019) Geotechnical characterization and collapsibility of a natural dispersive loess. Eng Geol 250:89–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.01.015
Scalia J, Benson CH, Bohnhoff GL, Edil TB, Shackelford CD (2014) Long-term hydraulic conductivity of a bentonite-polymer composite permeated with aggressive inorganic solutions. J Geotech Geoenviron 140(3):04013025. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001040
Schenker I, Filser FT, Herrmann HJ, Gauckler LJ (2009) Generation of porous particle structures using the void expansion method. Granular Matter 11:201–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10035-009-0129-3
SECS (2007) Standard for engineering classification of soil (GB/T 50145-2007), National Standards of People’s Republic of China. Ministry of Construction of the People's Republic of China (in Chinese).
SGTM (2019) Standard for geotechnical testing method (GB/T 50123–2019), national standards of people’s republic of China. China Planning Press, Beijing (in Chinese)
Sun JQ, Li XA, Gao RR, Ren YB, Lu T, Pang T (2022) Numerical investigation of hydrolysis failure of aggregates in loess. Environ Geotech J. https://doi.org/10.1680/jenge.21.00088
Sun JQ, Li X-A, Li J, Zhang J, Zhang YT (2023a) Numerical investigation of characteristics and mechanism of tunnel erosion of loess with coupled CFD and DEM method. CATENA 222:106729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106729
Sun X, Song SY, Niu CC, Wang ZX, Liu J, Shu H, Xia WT, Wang Q (2023b) Evolution characteristics of microscopic pore structure of saline soil profile in Qian’an country, Northeastern China. Bull Eng Geol Environ 82:191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03217-0
Tsuji Y, Kawaguchi T, Tanaka T (1993) Discrete particle simu-lation of two-dimensional fluidized bed. Powder Technol 77(1):79–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-5910(93)85010-7
Turcotte DL (1986) Fractals and fragmentation. Geophys Res 91(B2):1921–1926. https://doi.org/10.1029/JB091iB02p01921
Verachtert E, Van Den Eeckhaut M, Poesen J, Deckers J (2010) Factors controlling the spatial distribution of soil piping erosion on loess-derived soils: a case study from central Belgium. Geomorphology 118(3–4):339–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.02.001
Villar MV, Lloret A (2004) Influence of temperature on the hydro-mechanical behaviour of a compacted bentonite. Appl Clay Sci 26:337–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2003.12.026
Wang HK, Qian H, Gao YY (2020a) Non-darcian flow in loess at low hydraulic gradient. Eng Geol 267:105483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105483
Wang L, Li X-A, Li LC, Hong B, Yao W, Lei HN, Zhang C (2020b) Characterization of the collapsible mechanisms of Malan loess on the Chinese Loess Plateau and their effects on eroded loess landforms. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 26(5):1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2020.1721265
Wang HK, Qian H, Gao YY (2021a) Characterization of macropore structure of remolded loess and analysis of hydraulic conductivity anisotropy using X-ray computed tomography technology. Environ Earth Sci 80:197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09405-z
Wang SF, Sun Q, Wang NQ, Luo T, Zhang H (2021b) High-temperature response characteristics of loess porosity and strength. Environ Earth Sci 80:547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09799-w
Wang L (2021) Research on loess collapsibility prediction model based on microstructure unit theory. Doctoral dissertation. Chang'an University. https://doi.org/10.26976/d.cnki.gchau.2021.000038
Wen BP, Yan YJ (2014) Influence of structure on shear characteristics of the unsaturated loess in Lanzhou, China. Eng Geol 168:46–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2013.10.023
Wu Q, Wang CM, Song PR, Zhu HB, Ma DH (2014) Rainfall erosion experiment for steep loess slope and fluid-soil coupling simulation with PFC3D. Rock Soil Mech 35(4):977–985. https://doi.org/10.16285/j.rsm.2014.04.031. (in Chinese)
Wu ZJ, Zhang D, Wang SN, Liang C, Zhao DY (2020) Dynamic-response characteristics and deformation evolution of loess slopes under seismic loads. Eng Geol 267:105507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105507
Xu BH, Yu AB (1997) Numerical simulation of the gas-solid flow in a fluidized bed by combining discrete particle method with computational fluid dynamics. Chem Eng Sci 52(16):2785–2809. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2509(97)00081-X
Xu PP, Zhang QY, Qian H, Qu WG (2020) Effect of sodium chloride concentration on saturated permeability of remolded loess. Minerals 10(2):199. https://doi.org/10.3390/min10020199
Xu JB, Cao BH, Yu YL, Luo YZ (2021a) Sensitivity analysis of meso-parameters in loess triaxial test based on PFC3D. J Eng Geol 29(5):1342–1353. https://doi.org/10.13544/j.cnki.jeg.2020-593
Xu PP, Zhang QY, Qian H, Guo M, Yang FX (2021b) Exploring the geochemical mechanism for the saturated permeability change of remolded loess. Eng Geol 284:105927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105927
Xu PP, Zhang QY, Qian H, Li MN, Yang FX (2021c) An investigation into the relationship between saturated permeability and microstructure of remolded loess: a case study from Chinese Loess Plateau. Geoderma. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114774
Xu PP, Zhang QY, Qian H, Qu WG, Li MN (2021d) Microstructure and permeability evolution of remolded loess with different dry densities under saturated seepage. Eng Geol 282:105875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105875
Xu PP, Zhang QY, Qian H, Yang FX, Zheng L (2021e) Investigating the mechanism of pH effect on saturated permeability of remolded loess. Eng Geol 284:105978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105978
Yang XP, Liu T, Yuan BY (2009) The Loess Plateau of China: aeolian sedimentation and fluvial erosion, both with superlative rates. Geomorphological Landscapes of the World 275–282. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3055-9_28
Zhang YT, Qian H, Hou K, Qu WG (2021) Investigating and predicting the temperature effects of permeability for loess. Eng Geol 285:106050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106050
Zhao KY, Xu Q, Zhang XL, Peng DL, Qi X, Yang Q (2018) Infiltration characteristics of topsoil at Heifangtai in Gansu province. J Eng Geol 26(2):459–466. https://doi.org/10.13544/j.cnki.jeg.2016-502. (in Chinese)
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 42230712 and 41877225) for its help in this job. The authors are very grateful to the reviewers and editors for their thoughtful review comments and suggestions that improved the manuscript significantly.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 42230712 and 41877225).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
WW: conceptualization, methodology, data curation, software, writing—original draft. X-AL: conceptualization, methodology, funding acquisition, writing—review and editing. DH: software. WY: resources. ZL: validation. JY: validation.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, W., Li, XA., Huang, D. et al. Numerical characterization and mechanism study of loess permeability and seepage erosion based on DEM–CFD. Environ Earth Sci 83, 7 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-023-11328-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-023-11328-w