Abstract
The geochemical record in lake sediments was investigated in four gravity-core collected sediment cores from Farmington Lake, a drinking-water reservoir, to understand the geochemical history in the reservoir, determine any potential effects on water quality, and evaluate watershed processes. Trace-element sediment chemistry of arsenic, copper, lead, manganese, and sulfur revealed variable patterns among the four cores suggesting fluctuating water inputs to the reservoir depending on known conditions in the watershed or effects of local geology, lake turnover, redox conditions, or evaporative conditions in the sediments. Manganese and sulfur concentrations in reservoir sediments compared with local groundwater and surface water chemistry indicate that reduction–oxidation mechanisms play an important role in the chemical variability identified in the sediments and that there may be direct interaction with groundwater in Farmington Lake. Results of mobility experiments showed that the majority of manganese and copper were released from sediments after reaction with acetic acid and that sulfur was primarily released after reaction with a bicarbonate solution. Scanning electron microscopy evaluation of sediments showed that the reservoir sediments are predominantly kaolinite and montmorillonite with barite, framboidal pyrite, and iron and manganese oxides within the clay matrices. In contrast to the sediment chemistry from nearby Aztec Drinking Water Reservoir #1, evidence of upstream mining and milling was not observed in the sediment chemistry of Farmington Lake. This is further confirmed through identification of diatom taxa from the sediment, where no taxa were indicative of sustained low pH or highly mineralized water entering the reservoir. The results of this study provide information about the geochemical mechanisms in a large drinking-water reservoir that can be used for management decisions and an understanding of the geochemical transport that occurs in a dynamic watershed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abollino O, Aceto M, Malandrino M, Sarzanini C, Mentasti E (2003) Adsorption of heavy metals on Na-montmorillonite. Effect of pH and organic substances. Water Res 37:1619–1627. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(02)00524-9
Alekseenko V, Alekseenko A (2014) The abundances of chemical elements in urban soils. J Geochem Exp 147:245–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2014.08.003
Alpers CN, Jambor JL, Nordstrom DK eds (2000) Sulfate minerals: crystallography, geochemistry, and environmental significance. In: Reviews in mineralogy and geochemistry, volume 40. The Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, D.C.
Ammar R, Kazpard V, Wazne M, El Samrani AG, Amacha N, Saad Z, Chou L (2015) Reservoir sediments: a sink or source of chemicals at the surface water-groundwater interface. Environ Monit Assess 187:579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4791-0
Audry S, Grosbois C, Bril H, Schafer J, Kierczak J, Blanc G (2010) Post-depositional redeposition of trace metals in reservoir sediments of a mining/smelting-impacted watershed (the Lot River, SW France). Appl Geochem 25:778–794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2010.02.009
Baltz EH, Ash SR, Anderson RY (1966) History of nomenclature and stratigraphy of rocks adjacent to the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary western San Juan Basin, New Mexico. In: US Geological Survey Professional Paper 524-D. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0524d/report.pdf. Accessed 2 Jan 2021
Bazylinski DA (2001) Bacterial mineralization in Encyclopedia Of Materials: Science And Technology. In: Jurgen Buschow KH, Flemings MC, Kramer EJ, Veyssiere P (eds) Elsevier, Berlin, pp 441–447. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043152-6/00088-7
Bitusik P, Trnkova K, Chamutiova T, Sochuliakova L, Stoklasa J, Pipik R, Szarlowicz K, Szacilowski G, Thomkova K, Sporka F, Starek D, Surka J, Milovsky R, Hamerlik L (2018) Tracking human impact in a mining landscape using lake sediments: a multi-proxy palaeolimnological study. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 504:23–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.04.021
Bixby RJ, Edlund MB, Stoermer EF (2005) Hannaea superiorensis sp. nov., an endemic diatom from the Laurentian Great Lakes. Diatom Res 20:227–240
Blake JM, Brown JE, Ferguson CL, Bixby RJ, Delay NT (2020) Sediment record of mining legacy and water quality from a drinking-water reservoir, Aztec, New Mexico, USA. Environ Earth Sci 79:404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-020-09126-9
Blake JM, Ferguson CL, Brown JE, and Delay NT (2021) Farmington Lake sediment descriptions, total sediment chemistry, and batch experiment chemistry. US Geol Surv Data Release. https://doi.org/10.5066/P9KR7NSL
Bryant CL, Farmer JG, MacKenzie AB, Bailey-Watts AE, Kirika A (1997) Manganese behavior in the sediments of diverse Scottish freshwater lochs. Limnol Oceanogr 42(5):918–929
Buccione R, Fortunato E, Paternoster M, Rizzo G, Sinisi R, Summa V, Mongelli G (2020) Mineralogy and heavy metal assessment of Pietra del Pertusillo reservoir sediments (Southern Italy). Environ Sci Pollut R. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10829-6
Cardoso-Silvade Lima Alves SFP, Moschini-Carlos V, Figueira RCL, Pompeo M (2016) Temporal and spatial accumulation of heavy metals in the sediments at Paiva Castro Reservoir (São Paulo, Brazil). Environ Earth Sci 75:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4828-2
Carroll D (1959) Ion exchange in clays and other minerals. Bull Geol Soc Am 70:749–780
Cattaneo A, Couillard Y, Wunsam S, Fortin C (2011) Littoral diatoms as indicators of recent water and sediment contamination by metals in lakes. J Environ Monit 13:572. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0em00328j
CH2M Hill (2016) Farmington lake quantification. In: Technical Memorandum prepared for the City of Farmington
Church SE, Kimball BA, Fey DL, Ferderer DA, Yager TJ, Vaughn RB (1997) Source, transport, and partitioning of metals between water, colloids, and bed sediments of the Animas River, Colorado. US Geol Surv Open-File Rep 97–151:1–135
Church SE, Owen JR, von Guerard P, Verplanck PL, Kimball BA, Yager DB (2007) The effects of acidic mine drainage from historical mines in the Animas River watershed, San Juan County, Colorado—what is being done and what can be done to improve water quality? In: DeGraff JV (ed) Understanding and responding to hazardous substances at mine sites in the western United States: Geological Society of America Reviews in Engineering Geology XVII. https://doi.org/10.1130/2007.4017(04)
Craigg SD (2001) Geologic framework of the San Juan structural basin of New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah, with emphasis on Triassic through Tertiary Rocks. US Geol Surv Prof Pap 2001:1420. https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1420
Daniel B, Stephens & Associates, Inc. (2017) City of Farmington water system source water protection plan public water system #102-24, Prepared for City of Farmington, New Mexico. https://www.fmtn.org/DocumentCenter/View/13657/Draft---COF-Water-System-Source-Water-Protection-Plan?bidId=. Accessed 18 Nov 2020
Davison W (1993) Iron and manganese in lakes. Earth-Sci Rev 34:119–163
Drever J (1988) Geochemistry of natural waters, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall, Hoboken, p 480
Environmental Health and Safety Online [EHSO] (2020) The EPA TCLP: Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure and characteristic wastes (D-codes). http://www.ehso.com/TCLP.htm. Accessed 31 Dec 2020
Farmington Daily Times (2018) Sewage spills in the Animas River in Durango. https://www.daily-times.com/story/news/local/2018/07/27/sewage-spills-into-animas-river-durango/853148002/. Accessed 21 Dec 2020
Fassett JE, Hinds JS (1971) Geology and fuel resources of the Fruitland Formation and Kirtland Shale of the San Juan Basin, New Mexico and Colorado. US Geol Surv Prof Pap 1971:676. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0676/report.pdf. Accessed 2 Jan 2021
Frederick L, Johnson WP, Cerling T, Fernandez D, VanDerslice J (2019) Source identification of particulate metals/metalloids deposited in the San Juan River delta of Lake Powell, USA. Water Air Soil Poll 230:128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-019-4176-z
Hagerman PL, Seal RR, Diehl SF, Piatak NM, Lowers HA (2015) Evaluation of selected static methods used to estimate element mobility, acid-generating and acid-neutralizing potentials associated with geologically diverse mining wastes. Appl Geochem 57:125–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2014.12.007
Hamilton PB, Lavoie I, Alpay S, Ponader K (2015) Using diatom assemblages and sulfur in sediments to uncover the effects of historical mining on Lake Arnoux (Quebec, Canada): a retrospective of economic benefits vs environmental debt. Front Ecol Evol 2015:3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2015.00099
Heiri O, Lotter A, Lemcke G (2001) Loss on ignition as a method for estimating organic and carbonate content. J Paleolimnol 25:101–110
Durango Herald (2018) Battered in recent years, the Animas has bounced back before. https://durangoherald.com/articles/235122. Accessed 21 Dec 2020
Herndon EM, Havig JR, Singer DM, McCormick ML, Kump LR (2018) Manganese and iron geochemistry in sediments underlying the redox-stratified Fayetteville Green Lake. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 231:50–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2018.04.013
Hood JW, Kister LR (1962) Saline-water resources of New Mexico, US Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1601. https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1601/report.pdf. Accessed 28 Dec 2020
Horowitz AJ (1991) A primer on sediment-trace element chemistry, 2nd edition, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 91-76
Horton JD, San Juan CA, Stoeser DB (2017) The State Geologic Map Compilation (SGMC) geodatabase of the conterminous United States (ver 1.1, August 2017). US Geol Surv Data Ser 1052:46. https://doi.org/10.3133/ds1052
Kelley S, Engler T, Cather M, Pokorny C, Yang C, Mamer E, Hoffman G, Wilch J, Johnson P, and Zeigler K (2014) Hydrologic assessment of oil and gas resource development of the Mancos Shale in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico. New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources Open-File Report 566
Korosi JB, Thienpont JR, Eickmeyer DC, Kimpe LE, Blais JM (2020) A paleolimnological approach for interpreting aquatic effects monitoring at the Diavik Diamond Mine (Lac de Gras, Northwest Territories, Canada). Lake Reservoir Manage 36(3):297–313
Lane EW, and Koelzer VA (1943) Density of sediments deposited in reservoirs. In: Report no. 9, A study in methods used in measurements and analysis of sediment loads in streams, Hydraulic Lab, Univ. Of Iowa
Langmuir D (1997) Aqueous environmental geochemistry. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River
Lavoie I, Hamilton PB, Morin S, Tiam SK, Kahlert M, Gonçalves S, Falasco E, Fortin C, Gontero B, Heudre D, Kojadinovic-Sirinelli M, Manoylov K, Lalit LK, Pandey K, Taylor JC (2017) Diatom teratologies as biomarkers of contamination: are all deformities ecologically meaningful? Ecol Ind 82:539–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.06.048
Levings GW, Craigg SD, Dam WL, Kernodle JM, and Thorn CR (1990) Hydrogeology of the San Jose, Nacimiento, and Animas Formations in the San Juan structural basin, New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah, U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-720-A, 2 sheets. https://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/720a/plate-1.pdf and https://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/720a/plate-2.pdf. Accessed 29 Dec 2020
Maier DB, Rydberg J, Bigler C, and Renberg I (2013) Compaction of recent varved lake sediments. In: Geologiska Foreningen, 2013
Mann KC, Peck JA, Peck MC (2013) Assessing dam pool sediment for understanding past, present and future watershed dynamics: an example from the Cuyahoga River, Ohio. Anthropocene 2:76–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2013.08.001
Mau DP, Christensen VG (2000). Comparison of sediment deposition in reservoirs of four Kansas watersheds. US Geological Survey Fact Sheet 102. https://doi.org/10.3133/fs10200
Montoia P (2021) Oral communication
Morris GL, Annandale G, Hotchkiss R (2008) Reservoir sedimentation. In: Chapter 12 in sedimentation engineering (ed. Garcia, M.) American Society of Civil Engineers, pp 579–612
National Integrated Drought Information System [NIDIS] (2021) Drought.gov. https://www.drought.gov/states/new-mexico. Accessed 20 Apr 2021
National Water Quality Monitoring Council (2020) Water Quality Portal. https://www.waterqualitydata.us/. Accessed 23 Dec 2020
New Mexico Energy, Minerals and Natural Resources Department (2014) New Mexico Mining and Minerals Division, Mine Registration and Permits. https://wwwapps.emnrd.state.nm.us/MMD/MMDWebInfo/). Accessed 23 Dec 2020
New Mexico Environment Department (NMED) (2002) Water quality assessments for selected New Mexico Lakes. New Mexico Environment Department Monitoring and Assessment Section Surface Water Quality Bureau NMED/SWQ-07/3. https://www.env.nm.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/25/2019/10/LakeWaterQualityAssessments2002.pdf. Accessed 23 Dec 2020
Newton BT, Mamer E (2020) Hydrogeology and geochemistry of the Animas River alluvial aquifer, San Juan County, New Mexico: assessing groundwater recharge, flow paths, and solute sources. In: New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resource Open-file report 612
Newton BT, Mamer E, Timmons S (2017) Hydrogeology and geochemistry of the Animas River alluvial aquifer after the Gold King Mine spill, San Juan County, New Mexico. In: New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resource Open-file report 592
Norton SA, Pierret M, Kopacek J, Handley MJ, Perry RH (2016) Long-term dynamics of watershed leaching and lake sediment sequestration of rare earth elements following deglaciation of two mountain watersheds. J Paleolimnol 55:209–222. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10933-015-9872-0
Rao CRM, Sahuquillo A, Sanchez LJF (2008) A review of the different methods applied in environmental geochemistry for single and sequential extraction of trace elements in soils and related minerals. Water Air Soil Pollution 189:291–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-007-9564-0
Reavie E (2019) Paleolimnology supports aquatic management by providing early warnings of stressor impacts. Lake Reservoir Manage 36(3):210–217
Ridgley JL, Green MW, Pierson CT, Finch WI, Lupe RD (1978) Summary of the geology and resources of uranium in the San Juan Basin and adjacent region, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Colorado, US Geological Survey Open-file report 78-964
Rodriguez-Friere L, Avasarala S, Abdul-Mehdi SA, Agnew D, Hoover JH, Artyushkova K, Latta DE, Peterson EJ, Lewis J, Crossey LC, Brearley AJ, Cerrato JM (2016) Post Gold King Mine spill investigation of metal stability in water and sediments of the Animas River watershed. Environ Sci Technol 50:11539–11548
Schoeneberger PJ, Wysocki DA, Benham EC, and Soil Survey Staff (2012) Field book for describing and sampling soils, Version 3.0. In: Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE
Sgro GV, Poole JB, Johansen JR (2007) Diatom species composition and ecology of the Animas River Watershed, Colorado, USA. Western North Am Naturist 67:4
Smith E, Hamilton-Taylor J, Davison W, Fullwood NJ, McGrath M (2004) The effect of humic substances on barite precipitation-dissolution behaviour in natural and synthetic lake waters. Chem Geol 207:81–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2004.02.005
Smith LN (1992) Stratigraphy, sediment dispersal and paleogeography of the lower Eocene San Jose Formation, San Juan Basin, New Mexico. In: San Juan Basin IV, Lucas SG, Kues BS, Williamson TE, Hunt AP (eds) New Mexico Geological Society 43rd Annual Fall Field Conference Guidebook, p 411
Smith SM (2006) Reformatted data from the National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NURE) Hydrogeochemical and Stream Sediment Reconnaissance (HSSR) Program. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 97-492. https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr97492
Smol JP (2008) Pollution in lakes and river: a paleoenvironmental perspective, 2nd edn. Blackwell Publishing, Malden
Smucker NJ, Vis ML (2011) Spatial factors contribute to benthic diatom structure in streams across spatial scales: considerations for biomonitoring. Ecol Ind 11:1191–1203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2010.12.022
Stoermer EF, Edlund MB, Pilskaln CH, Schelske CL (1995) Siliceous microfossil distribution in the surficial sediments of Lake Baikal. J Paleolimnol 14:69–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00682594
Taggart Jr. JE (2002) Analytical methods for chemical analysis of geologic and other materials. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 02-223. https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr02223
Tessier A, Campbell PGC, Bisson M (1979) Sequential extraction procedure for the speciation of particulate trace metals. Anal Chem 51:844–851
Tolotti R, Consani S, Carbone C, Vagge G, Capello M, Cutroneo L (2019) Benthic diatom community response to metal contamination from an abandoned Cu mine: case study of the Gromolo Torrent (Italy). J Environ Sci 75:233–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2018.03.034
US Environmental Protection Agency [USEPA] (1992) Method 1311: Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-12/documents/1311.pdf
US Environmental Protection Agency [USEPA] (2016) Wastes-Hazardous Waste- Test Methods- TCLP Questions. https://archive.epa.gov/epawaste/hazard/web/html/faq_tclp.html#Total. Accessed 17 Dec 2020
US Environmental Protection Agency [USEPA] (2020a) National primary drinking-water regulations. https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations#Inorganic. Accessed 31 Dec 2020
US Environmental Protection Agency [USEPA] (2020b) Secondary drinking-water standards: guidance for nuisance chemicals. https://www.epa.gov/sdwa/secondary-drinking-water-standards-guidance-nuisance-chemicals. Accessed 29 Dec 2020
US Geological Survey [USGS] (2019) Mineral Resources Program Analytical Chemistry. https://www.usgs.gov/energy-and-minerals/mineral-resources-program/science/analytical-chemistry?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects. Accessed 15 Oct 2019
US Geological Survey [USGS] (2020) USGS 09363500 Animas River near Cedar Hill, NM. National Water Information System database. https://doi.org/10.5066/F7P55KJN. https://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/uv?site_no=09363500. Accessed 4 Jan 4 2020
van den Berg GA, Loch JPG, Van Der Heijdt LM, Zwolsman JJG (1999) Mobilisation of heavy metals in contaminated sediments in the river Meuse, The Netherlands. Water Air Soil Pollut 116:567–586
Van Metre PC, Mahler BJ (2004) Contaminant trends in reservoir sediment cores as records of influent stream quality. Environ Sci Technol 38:2978–2986. https://doi.org/10.1021/es049859x
Van Loenen RE, Gibbons AB, Raby AG, Dersch JS (1997) Mineral resource potential and geology of the San Juan National Forest, Colorado. US Geol Surv Bull 2127:1–140. https://doi.org/10.3133/b2127
van Loon GW, Duffy SJ (2011) Environmental chemistry—a global perspective. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Wilkin RT, Barnes HL (1997) Formation processes of framboidal pyrite. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 61:323–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(96)00320-1
Won J, Burns SE (2018) Role of immobile kaolinite colloids in the transport of heavy metals. Environ Sci Technol 52:2735–2741. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b05631
Xu H, Li J, Kong M, Xu M, Lv X (2019) Abundance, chemical composition and lead adsorption properties of sedimentary colloids in a eutrophic shallow lake. Chemosphere 218:534–539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.147
Yager DB, Bove DJ (2007) Generalized geologic map of part of the Animas River watershed and vicinity, Silverton, Colorado. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1651, Plate 1. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1651/downloads/plates/pl_1.pdf
Zimbelman DR, Rye RO, Breit GN (2005) Origin of secondary sulfate minerals on active andesitic stratovolcanoes. In Geochemistry of Sulfate Minerals: A Tribute to Robert O. Rye. 7. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usgsrye/7
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Chris Braun, Craig Weiss, and Jennifer Wilson from the U.S. Geological Survey Texas Water Science Center for their help in coring the lake, Paul Montoia from the City of Farmington for his assistance and information about the reservoir, and Mike Spilde from the University of New Mexico for his help with SEM analysis. This paper is dedicated to the memory of Pete Van Metre, a former U.S. Geological Survey employee and lake core enthusiast. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the US Government.
Funding
Funding for this project came from the New Mexico Environment Department.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Blake, J.M., Brown, J.E., Ferguson, C.L. et al. Sediment cores in a municipal drinking-water reservoir as a record of geochemical transport within a watershed, Farmington Lake, New Mexico, USA. Environ Earth Sci 81, 96 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10227-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10227-w