Abstract
The large-scale relationship between gross primary productivity (GPP) and plant species richness (PSR) remains a fundamental topic in macro-ecology. Although there have been numerous studies of the connection between GPP and PSR, this relationship (linear or unimodal) is still debatable at geographical scales. Using geographically weighted regression and ordinary least squares, GPP and PSR data from protected areas in China were used to explore the complex relationship between GPP and PSR across different taxonomic groups (i.e. vascular plants, ferns, seed plants, gymnosperms, and angiosperms). Results showed that GPP was significantly related to PSR for all taxonomic groups at geographical scales (p < 0.001). Such relationships varied among taxonomic groups. The explanatory power of GPP was highest for PSR in seed plants (58.5%; p < 0.001). Further, the study found that the GPP–PSR relationships across different taxonomic groups at geographical scales were best described by a cubic regression, differing from the linear or unimodal relationships described thus far. Specifically, negative relationships were found between GPP and PSR at extremely low levels of GPP and GPP–PSR relationships were unimodal at relatively high GPP levels. This analysis provides new evidence regarding the relationship between GPP and PSR based on different taxonomic groups and develops the mechanisms and models of GPP linking to PSR at broad scales.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adler PB, Seabloom EW, Borer ET, Hillebrand H, Hautier Y, Hector A, Harpole WS, O’Halloran LR, Grace JB, Anderson TM, Bakker JD, Biederman LA, Brown CS, Buckley YM, Calabrese LB, Chu CJ, Cleland EE, Collins SL, Cottingham KL, Crawley MJ, Damschen EI, Davies KF, DeCrappeo NM, Fay PA, Firn J, Frater P, Gasarch EI, Gruner DS, Hagenah N, Lambers JHR, Humphries H, Jin VL, Kay AD, Kirkman KP, Klein JA, Knops JMH, La Pierre KJ, Lambrinos JG, Li W, MacDougall AS, McCulley RL, Melbourne BA, Mitchell CE, Moore JL, Morgan JW, Mortensen B, Orrock JL, Prober SM, Pyke DA, Risch AC, Schuetz M, Smith MD, Stevens CJ, Sullivan LL, Wang G, Wragg PD, Wright JP, Yang LH (2011) Productivity is a poor predictor of plant species richness. Science 333:1750–1753. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204498
Baldwin BG, Thornhill AH, Freyman WA, Ackerly DD, Kling MM, Morueta-Holme N, Mishler BD (2017) Species richness and endemism in the native flora of California. Am J Bot 104:487–501. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.1600326
Bond WJ (1989) The tortoise and the hare: ecology of angiosperm dominance and gymnosperm persistence. Biol J Linn Soc 36:227–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1989.tb00492.x
Brunsdon C, Fotheringham AS, Charlton ME (1996) Geographically weighted regression: a method for exploring spatial nonstationarity. Geogr Anal 28:281–298. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4632.1996.tb00936.x
Chase JM, Leibold MA (2002) Spatial scale dictates the productivity–biodiversity relationship. Nature 416:427. https://doi.org/10.1038/416427a
Foster BL (2001) Constraints on colonization and species richness along a grassland productivity gradient: the role of propagule availability. EcolLett 4:530–535. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2001.00266.x
Fraser LH, Pither J, Jentsch A, Sternberg M, Zobel M, Askarizadeh D, Bartha S, Beierkuhnlein C, Bennett JA, Bittel A, Boldgiv B, Boldrini II, Bork E, Brown L, Cabido M, Cahill J, Carlyle CN, Campetella G, Chelli S, Cohen O, Csergo A, Díaz S, Enrico L, Ensing D, Fidelis A, Fridley JD, Foster B, Garris H, Goheen JR, Henry HAL, Hohn M, Jouri MH, Klironomos J, Koorem K, Lawrence-Lodge R, Long R, Manning P, Mitchell R, Moora M, Müller SC, Nabinger C, Naseri K, Overbeck GE, Palmer TM, Parsons S, Pesek M, Pillar VD, Pringle RM, Roccaforte K, Schmidt A, Shang Z, Stahlmann R, Stotz GC, Sugiyama S, Szentes S, Thompson D, Tungalag R, Undrakhbold S, van Rooyen M, Wellstein C, Wilson JB, Zupo T (2015) Worldwide evidence of a unimodal relationship between productivity and plant species richness. Science 349:302–305. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab3916
Gillman LN, Wright SD, Cusens J, McBride PD, Malhi Y, Whittaker RJ (2015) Latitude, productivity and species richness. Glob EcolBiogeogr 24:107–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12245
Grace JB, Anderson TM, Seabloom EW, Borer ET, Adler PB, Harpole WS, Hautier Y, Hillebrand H, Lind EM, Pärtel M, Bakker JD, Buckley YM, Crawley MJ, Damschen EI, Davies KF, Fay PA, Firn J, Gruner DS, Hector A, Knops JMH, MacDougall AS, Melbourne BA, Morgan JW, Orrock JL, Prober SM, Smith MD (2016) Integrative modelling reveals mechanisms linking productivity and plant species richness. Nature 529:390. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16524
Groner E, Novoplansky A (2003) Reconsidering diversity–productivity relationships: directness of productivity estimates matters. EcolLett 6:695–699. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2003.00488.x
Gross KL, Willig MR, Gough L, Inouye R, Cox SB (2000) Patterns of species density and productivity at different spatial scales in herbaceous plant communities. Oikos 89:417–427. https://doi.org/10.2307/3547627
Herben T, Šerá B, Klimešová J (2015) Clonal growth and sexual reproduction: tradeoffs and environmental constraints. Oikos 124:469–476. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.01692
Huang J, Liu C, Guo Z, Ma K, Zang R, Ding Y, Lu X, Wang J, Yu R (2018) Seed plant features, distribution patterns, diversity hotspots, and conservation gaps in Xinjiang, China. Nat Conserv 27:1–15. https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.27.23728
Jetz W, Rahbek C, Lichstein JW (2005) Local and global approaches to spatial data analysis in ecology. Glob EcolBiogeogr 14:97–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-822x.2004.00129.x
Jonsson M, Bengtsson J, Gamfeldt L, Moen J, Snäll T (2019) Levels of forest ecosystem services depend on specific mixtures of commercial tree species. Nat Plants 5:141. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-018-0346-z
Klekowski EJ (1972) Genetical features of ferns as contrasted to seed plants. Ann Missouri Bot Gard 59:138–151. https://doi.org/10.2307/2394749
Laanisto L, Urbas P, Pärtel M (2008) Why does the unimodal species richness–productivity relationship not apply to woody species: a lack of clonality or a legacy of tropical evolutionary history? Glob EcolBiogeogr 17:320–326. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00375.x
Li SL, Yu FH, Werger MJ, Dong M, During HJ, Zuidema PA (2015) Mobile dune fixation by a fast-growing clonal plant: a full life-cycle analysis. Sci Rep 5:8935. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep08935
Lu LM, Mao LF, Yang T, Ye JF, Liu B, Li HL, Sun M, Miller JT, Mathews S, Hu HH, Niu YT, Peng DX, Chen YH, Smith SA, Chen M, Xiang KL, Le CT, Dang VC, Lu AM, Soltis PS, Soltis DE, Li JH, Chen ZD (2018) Evolutionary history of the angiosperm flora of China. Nature 554:234–238. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25485
Maestre FT, Quero JL, Gotelli NJ, Escudero A, Ochoa V, Delgado-Baquerizo M, García-Gómez M, Bowker MA, Soliveres S, Escolar C, García-Palacios P, Berdugo M, Valencia E, Gozalo B, Gallardo A, Aguilera L, Arredondo T, Blones J, Boeken B, Bran D, Conceição AA, Cabrera O, Chaieb M, Derak M, Eldridge DJ, Espinosa CI, Florentino A, Gaitán J, Gatica MG, Ghiloufi M, Gómez-González S, Gutiérrez JR, Hernández RM, Huang X, Huber-Sannwald E, Jankju M, Miriti M, Monerris J, Mau RL, Morici E, Naseri K, Ospina A, Polo V, Prina A, Pucheta E, Ramírez-Collantes DA, Romão R, Tighe M, Torres-Díaz C, Val J, Veiga JP, Wang D, Zaady E (2012) Plant species richness and ecosystem multifunctionality in global drylands. Science 335:214–218. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1215442
Mittelbach GG, Steiner CF, Scheiner SM, Gross KL, Reynolds HL, Waide RB, Willig MR, Dodson SI, Gough L (2001) What is the observed relationship between species richness and productivity? Ecology 82:2381–2396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2679922
Pärtel M, Zobel M (2007) Dispersal limitation may result in the unimodal productivity–diversity relationship: a new explanation for a general pattern. J Ecol 95:90–94. https://doi.org/10.2307/4495959
Pärtel M, Laanisto L, Zobel M (2007) Contrasting plant productivity–diversity relationships across latitude: the role of evolutionary history. Ecology 88:1091–1097. https://doi.org/10.1890/06-0997
Pärtel M, Zobel K, Laanisto L, Szava-Kovats R, Zobel M (2010) The productivity–diversity relationship: varying aims and approaches. Ecology 91:2565–2567. https://doi.org/10.1890/09-1016.1
Rajaniemi TK (2003) Explaining productivity–diversity relationships in plants. Oikos 101:449–457. https://doi.org/10.2307/3547771
Rangel TFL, Diniz-Filho JAF, Bini LM (2006) Towards an integrated computational tool for spatial analysis in macroecology and biogeography. Glob EcolBiogeogr 15:321–327. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-822X.2006.00237.x
Rangel TF, Diniz-Filho JAF, Bini LM (2010) SAM: a comprehensive application for spatial analysis in macroecology. Ecography 33:46–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.06299.x
Song M, Dong M, Jiang G (2002) Importance of clonal plants and plant species diversity in the Northeast China Transect. Ecol Res 17:705–716. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1703.2002.00527.x
Wan JZ, Wang CJ, Yu FH (2019) Large-scale environmental niche variation between clonal and non-clonal plant species: roles of clonal growth organs and ecoregions. Sci Total Environ 652:1071–1076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.280
Wang CJ (2017a) Geographical Distribution Pattern and Spatial Conservation Prioritization for Wild Plants in China under Climate Change. Dissertation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing.
Wang Z (2017b) Process strengths determine the forms of the relationship between plant species richness and primary productivity. PLoS ONE 12:e0185884. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185884
Xiao S, Zobel M, Szava-Kovats R, Pärtel M (2010) The effects of species pool, dispersal and competition on the diversity–productivity relationship. Glob EcolBiogeogr 19:343–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00511.x
Xu X, Wang Z, Rahbek C, Sanders NJ, Fang J (2016) Geographical variation in the importance of water and energy for oak diversity. J Biogeogr 43:279–288. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12620
Xu W, Xiao Y, Zhang J, Yang W, Zhang L, Hull V, Wang Z, Zheng H, Liu J, Polasky S, Jiang L, Xiao Y, Shi X, Rao E, Lu F, Wang X, Daily GC, Ouyang Z (2017) Strengthening protected areas for biodiversity and ecosystem services in China. ProcNatlAcadSci USA 114:1601–1606. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1620503114
Ye D, Hu Y, Song M, Pan X, Xie X, Liu G, Ye X, Dong M (2014) Clonality-climate relationships along latitudinal gradient across China: adaptation of clonality to environments. PLoS ONE 9:e94009. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094009
Ye D, Liu G, Song YB, Cornwell WK, Dong M, Cornelissen JH (2016) Strong but diverging clonality-climate relationships of different plant clades explain weak overall pattern across China. Sci Rep 6:26850. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep26850
Yu H, Deane DC, Sui X, Fang S, Chu C, Liu Y, He F (2019) Testing multiple hypotheses for the high endemic plant diversity of the Tibetan Plateau. Glob EcolBiogeogr 28:131–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12827
Zhang Y, Xiao X, Wu X, Zhou S, Zhang G, Qin Y, Dong J (2017) A global moderate resolution dataset of gross primary production of vegetation for 2000–2016. Sci Data 4:170165. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2017.165
Zhang L, Luo Z, Mallon D, Li C, Jiang Z (2017) Biodiversity conservation status in China’s growing protected areas. BiolConserv 210:89–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.05.005
Zobel M, Pärtel M (2008) What determines the relationship between plant diversity and habitat productivity? Glob EcolBiogeogr 17:679–684. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2008.00400.x
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC; 31800449 and 31800464), and Ji-Zhong Wan and Chun-Jing Wang were supported by ‘1000 Talent’ programs of Qinghai Province.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
C-JW wrote the manuscript, developed methodology, and performed statistical analyses; Z-XZ managed the dataset; J-ZW originally formulated the idea and reviewed the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, CJ., Zhang, Z.X. & Wan, JZ. Relationship between gross primary productivity and plant species richness at geographical scales: evidence from protected area data in China. Environ Earth Sci 80, 189 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09503-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09503-y