Abstract
Cliff erosion and the consequent instabilities present a significant risk to Antalya city (SW-Turkey). Erosional processes include the chemical action of mixing zone water, the mechanical action of waves, salt erosion and biological degradation. The rock properties (lithology, stratification, strength, etc.) are the controlling factors to this erosion. The coastal cliffs of Antalya are composed of tufa type carbonate rocks which occur in a wide range, from collapsible soil to hard rock. The instability problems of the cliffs of Antalya tufa commonly involve: rock fall, cave collapse, raveling, washout of weakly lithified tufa, shear failure and secondary toppling. Secondary toppling type instabilities, Culmann type failures and complex failures, a combination of these two, are widespread on the cliffs. The occurrence of large failures are usually associated with heavy rainfall as heavy rainfall causes the saturation of pores, increases pore water pressures and reduces the strength of the rock. Comparison between aerial photographs and topographic maps of different dates, do not provide evidence of considerable retreat. According to the historical data there has been little or no cliff retreat for 2,000 years. Therefore the erosion rate of the Antalya tufa cliffs is said to be so very slow that retreat is valid only in a geological timescale. However in an engineering timescale these cliffs are subjected to instabilities and to local failures causing local retreats.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Back W, Henshaw BB, Herman JS, Van Driel JN (1986) Differential dissolution of a Pleistocene reef in the ground-water mixing zone of coastal Yucatan, Mexico. Geology 14:137–140
Bögli A (1964) Mischungkorrosion; ein Beitrag zum Verkarstungsproblem. Erdkunde 18(2):83–92
Dipova N, Doyuran V (2006a) Assessment of the collapse mechanism of tufa deposits. Eng Geol 83:332–342
Dipova N, Doyuran V (2006b) Characterization of the Antalya (Turkey) tufa deposits. Carbonates Evaporites 21(2):144–160
Dunne T (1990) Hydrology, mechanics, and geomorphic implications of erosion by subsurface flow. In: Higgins CG and Coates DR (ed) Groundwater geomorphology: the role of subsurface water in earth-surface processes and landform. Geological Society of America Special Paper, 252:1–28
Emery K, Kuhn G (1982) Sea cliffs: their processes, profiles and classification. Geol Soc Am Bull 93:644–654
Focke J (1978) Limestone cliff morphology on Curacao. Z Geomorphol 22:329–349
Ford TD, Pedley HM (1996) A review of tufa and travertine deposits of the world. Earth Sci Rev 41:117–175
Glover CP, Robertson AHF (1998) Role of regional extension and uplift in the Plio-Pleistocene evolution of the Aksu Basin, SW Turkey. Journal of Geological Society, London 155:365–387
Goodman RE, Bray JW (1976) Toppling of rock slopes. Proceedings speciality conf. rock engng. for fdns. and slopes. Boulder, CO, ASCE, 2
Goodman R, Kieffer S (2000) Behavior of rock in slopes. J Geotechn Geoenviron Eng 126(8):675–684
Hampton M (2002) Gravitational failure of sea cliffs in weakly lithified sediment. Environ Eng Geosci 8(3):175–192
Harris JG, Mylroie JE, Carew JL (1995) Banana holes: unique karst features of the Bahamas. Carbonates Evaporites 10(2):215–224
Hutchings PA (1986) Biological destruction of coral reefs: a review. Coral Reefs 4:239–252
Hutchinson JN (1969) A reconsideration of the coastal landslides at Folkestone Warren, Kent. Geotechnique 19:6–38
Kilic R, Yavuz S (1994) Relationship between geotechnical properties of the Antalya Travertine (Turkey). Bull Int Assoc Eng Geol 50:43–50
Kogure T, Aoki H, Maekado A, Hirose T, Matsukura Y (2006) Effect of the development of notches and tension cracks on instability of limestone coastal cliffs in the Ryukyus, Japan. Geomorphology 80:236–244
Moore LJ (2000) Shoreline mapping techniques. J Coast Res 16(1):111–124
Moses CA, Smith BJ (1994) Limestone weathering in supra-tidal zone: an example from Mallorca. In: Robinson DA, Williams RBG (eds) Rock weathering and landform evolution. Wiley, Chichester, pp 432–451
Mylroie JE, Carew JL (1990) The flank margin model for dissolution cave development in carbonate platforms. Earth Surf Proc Land 15:413–424
Mylroie JE, Carew JL (1997) Land use and carbonate island karst. In: Beck BF, Stephenson JB (eds) The engineering geology and hydrogeology of karst terranes. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 3–19
Neumann AC (1966) Observations on coastal erosion in Bermuda and measurements of the boring rates of the sponge Cliona lampa. Limnol Oceanogr 1:92–108
Norris RM (1990) Sea cliff erosion: a major dilemma: California Geology. August, pp 171–177
Nossin JJ (1989) SPOT stereo ınterpretation in karst terrain: Southern Turkey. ITC J 2:79–91
Pentecost A (1995) The Quaternary Travertine deposits of Europe and Asia Minor. Quat Sci Rev 1(14):1005–1028
Plummer LN (1975) Mixing of sea water with calcium carbonate ground water: Geol. Soc Am Bull Mem 142:219–236
Rosser NJ, Petley DN, Lim M, Dunning SA, Allison RJ (2005) Terrestrial laser scanning for monitoring the process of hard rock coastal cliff erosion. Q J Eng Geol 38:363–375
Spencer T (1992) Bioerosion and biogeomorphology. In: John DM, Hawkins SJ, Price JH (eds) Plant–animal ınteractions in the marine benthos (Systematics Association Special Volume 46). Oxford Science Publications, Oxford, pp 493–509
Sunamura T (1992) The geomorphology of rock coast. Wiley, Chichester
Timoshenko SP, Gere JM (1978) Mechanics of materials. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p 552
Trudgill ST (1976) The marine erosion of limestones on Aldabra Atoll, Indian Ocean. Z Geomorphol 26(Suppl 1):164–200
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by Akdeniz University (Antalya, Turkey). The author would like to express his gratitude to the anonymous reviewers of this journal for their comments and suggestions on the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Dipova, N. Preliminary assessments on the modes of instability of the Antalya (SW-Turkey) coastal cliffs. Environ Earth Sci 59, 547–560 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0053-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0053-1