Abstract
Formation of the fragments of the wall-rock during dyking is one of the important manifestations of instantaneous magmatic events. This process is well documented at shallower depths of Earth’s crust but not at deeper levels. In this paper the in situ xenoliths of host rock nepheline syenite within a micro-shonkinite dyke emplaced at mid-crustal depths is described and the fractal theory applied to evaluate origin of the xenoliths. The nepheline syenite xenoliths are angular to oval shaped and sub-millimetre to ~50 cm long. The xenoliths are matrix supported with clasts and matrix being in equal proportions. Partly detached wall-rock fragments indicate incipient xenolith formation, which suggested that the model fragmentation processes is solely due to dyke emplacement. Fractal analytical techniques including clast size distribution, boundary roughness fractal dimension and clast circularity was carried out. The fractal data suggests that hydraulic (tensile) fracturing is the main process of host rock brecciation. However, the clast size and shape are further affected by postfragmentation processes including shear and thermal fracturing, and chemical erosion. The study demonstrates that dyking in an isotropic medium produces fractal size distributions of host rock xenoliths; however, post-fragmentation processes modify original fractal size distributions.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allegre, C.J., Le Mouel, J.L. and Provost. A (1982) Scaling rules in fracture and possible implications for earthquake predications. Nature, v.297, pp.47–49.
Bailey, D.K. (1985) Fluids, Melts, flowage and style of eruption in alkaline ultramafic magmatism. Trans. Geol. Soc. South Africa, v.88, pp.449–457.
Bérubé, D. and Jebrak, M. (1999) High precision boundary fractal analysis for shape characterization. Comp. & Geosci., v.25, pp.1059–1071.
Bérubé, D. and Jebrak, M. (1996) High precision boundary fractal analysis for shape characterization. Comp. & Geosci., v.25, pp.1059–1071.
Bonnet, E., Bour, O., Odling, N.E., Davy, P., Main, I., Cowie, P. and Berkowitz, B. (2001) Scaling of fracture systems in geological media. Rev. Geophys., v.39, pp.347–383.
Bryant, B.G. (1968) Intrusive breccias associated with ore, warren (Bisbee) mining district Arizona. Econ. Geol., v.63, pp.1–12.
Burnham, C.W. (1985) Energy release in subvolcanic environments: implications for breccias formation. Econ. Geol., v.80, pp.1515–1522.
Carreras, J., Czeck, D.M., Druguet, E. and Hudleston, P.J. (2010) Structure and development of an anastomosing network of ductile shear zones. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.32, pp.656–666.
Cello, G. (1997) Fractal analysis of a Quaternary fault array in the central Apennines, Italy. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.19, pp.945–953.
Cladouhos, T. and Marrett, R. (1996) Are fault growth and linkage models consistent with power-law distribution of fault length? Jour. Struct. Geol., v.18, pp.281–293.
Clark, R.M. and Cox, S.J.D. (1996) A modern regression approaches to determining fault displacement–length scaling relationships. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.18, pp.147–152.
Clarke. D.B., Henry, A.S. and White, M.A. (1998) Exploding xenoliths and the absence of “elephents graveyards” in granite batholiths. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.20, pp.1325–1343.
Cowie, P.A. and Scholz, C.H. (1992) Physical explanation for displacement–length relationship of faults using a post-yield fracture mechanics model. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.14, pp.1133–1148.
Delaney, P.T., Pollard, D.D. (1981) Deformation of host rocks and flow of magma during growth of the minette dikes and breccias bearing intrusions near ship rock, New Mexico. Professional Paper U.S. Geol. Surv., 1202p.
Delaney, P.T., Pollard, D.D., Ziony, J.I. and Mckee, E.H. (1986) Field relations between dikes and joints: Emplacement processes and paleostress analysis. Jour. Geophy. Res, v.91, pp.4920–4928.
Dellino, P. and Liotino, G. (2002) The fractal and multifractal dimensions of volcanic ash of volcanic particles contour: a test study on the utility and volcanological relevance. Jour. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., v.113, pp.1–18.
Donnison, J.R. and Sugden, R.A. (1984) The distribution of asteroid diameters. Mon. Not. R. Astronomical Soc., v.210, pp.673–682
Farris, D W. and Paterson, S.R. (2007) Contamination of silicic magmas and fractal fragmentation of xenoliths in Paleocene plutons on Kodiak Island, Alaska. Can. Mineral., v.45, pp.107–129.
Ferreira, V.P., Sial, A.N., Weinberg, R.F. and Pimentel, M.M. (2015) Deepseated fragmentation, transport of breccias dikes and emplacement: An example from the Borborema province, northeastern Brazil. Jour. S. Amer. Earth. Sci., v.58, pp.300–308.
Furlong, K.P. and Myers, J.D. (1985) Thermal-Mechanical modeling of the role of thermal stress and stoping in magma contamination. Jour. Volcanol. Geotherm., Res., v.24, pp.179–191.
Gates, K. (2015) A quantitative analysis of xenolith fragmentation and incorporation in magma. M.Sc thesis (unpublished) Texas Tech University, 210p.
Glazner, A.F. and Bartley, J.M. (2006) Is stoping a volumetrically significant pluton emplacement processes? Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., v.118, pp.1185–1195.
Gonnermann, H.M. and Manga, M. (2005) Flow banding in obsidian: A record of evolving textural heterogeneity during magma deformation. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., v.236, pp.135–147
Green, N. L. (1994) Mechanism for middle to upper crustal contamination: Evidence from continental-margin magma. Geology, v.22, pp.231–234.
Gross, M.R., Gutierrez-Alonso, G., Bai, T., Wacker, M.A. and Collinsworth, K.B. (1997) Influence of mechanical stratigraphy and kinematics on fault scaling relations. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.19, pp.171–183.
Gudmundsson, A. (2004) Effects of mechanical layering on the development of normal faults and dikes in Iceland. Geodin. Acta. v.18, pp.11–30.
Hodge, K.F. and Jellinek, A.M. (2012) Linking enclave formation to magma rheology. Jour. Geophys. Res. B117, B10208, Doi: 1029/2012JB009393.
Holtz, F., Lenne, S., Vetere, F. and Wolf, P. (2004) Non-linear deformation and break up of enclaves in a rhyolitic magma: A case study from Lipari Island (southern Italy), Geophys. Res. Lett., v.31, pp.L24611.
Jebrak, M. (1997) Hydrothermal breccias in vein–type ore deposits: A review of mechanisms, morphology and size distribution. Ore. Geol. Rev., v.12, pp.111–134.
Johnson, A.M. and Pollard, D.D. (1973) Mechanics of growth of some laccolithic intrusions in the Henry Mountains, Utah, I: Field observations, Gilbert’s model, physical properties and flows of the magma. Tecnophysics, v.18, pp.261–309.
Klausen, M.B. (2004) Geometry and mode of emplacement of the Thverartindur cone sheet swarm, SE Iceland. Jour. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., v.138, pp.185–204.
Knott, S.D., Beach, A., Brockbank, P.J., Lawson B.J., McCallum, J.E. and Welbon, A.I. (1996) Spatial and mechanical controls on normal fault populations. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.18, pp.359–372.
Korvin, G. (1992) Fractal models in the Earth Sciences. Elsevier, New York, pp.191–230.
Lange, M.A., Ahrens, T.J. and Boslough, M.B. (1984) Impact cratering and spall failure of gabbro. Icarus., v.58, pp.383–395.
Leelanandam, C. (1989) The Prakasam alkaline province in Andhra Pradesh, India. Jour. Geol. Soc. India, v.34, pp.25–45.
Lorilleux, G., Jebrak, M., Cuney, M. and Baudemont, D. (2002) Polyphase hydrothermal breccias associated with unconformity–related uranium mineralization (Canada): From fractal analysis to structural significance. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.24, pp.323–338.
Maaloe, S. (1987) The generation and shape of feeder dykes from mantle sources. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., v.96, pp.47–55.
Madhavan, V. and Leelanandam, C. (1988) Petrology of the Elchuru alkaline pluton, Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Jour. Geol. Soc. India., v.31, pp.515–537.
Madhavan, V., Mallikarjun Rao, J., Subrahmanyam, K., Krishna, S.G. and Leelanandam. C. (1989) Bedrock geology of Elchuru alkaline pluton, Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh. In: Leelanandam, C. (Ed.), Alkaline Rocks. Mem. Geol. Soc India, no.15, pp.189–205.
Madhavan, V., Rao, J.M., Balaram, V. and Ramesh Kumar. (1992) Geochemistry and petrogenesis of lamprophyres and associated dykes from Elchuru, Andhra Pradesh, India. Jour. Geol. Soc. India, v.40, pp.135–149.
Mancktelow, N.S. (2002) Finite-element modelling of shear zone development in viscoelastic materials and its implications for localization of partial melting. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.24, pp.1045–1053.
Mandal, N., Mitra, A.K., Misra, S. and Chakraborty, C. (2006) Is the outcrop topology of dolerite dikes of the Precambrian Singhbhum Craton fractal? Jour. Earth Syst. Sci., v.115, pp.643–660.
Mandelbrot, B.B. (1967) How long is the coast of Britain? Statistical self–similarity and fractional dimension. Science, v.156, pp.636–638.
Mandelbrot, B.B. (1983) The fractal geometry of nature. San Francisco, W.H. Freeman.
Marko, W.T., Barnes, C.G., Yoshinobu., A.S., Frost, C.D. and Nordgulen, O. (2013) Geology, geochemistry, and emplacement conditions of the Vega intrusive complex; an example of large–scale crustal anatexis in north–central Norway: Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., v.390, pp.603–631.
Marko, W., Barnes, L., Vietti, L., McCulloch, L., Anderson, H., Barnes, C. and Yoshinobu, A. (2005) Xenolith incorporation, distribution, and dissemination in a mid–crustal granodiorite, Vega pluton, Central Norway, Eos Trans. AGU, 86, Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract V13E–0596.
Marrett, R. and Allemendinger, R.W. (1991) Estimate of strain due to brittle faulting: Sampling of fault populations. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.13, pp.735–738.
Marsh, B.D. (1982) On the mechanics of igneous diapirism, stoping and zone melting. Amer. Jour. Sci., v.282, pp.808–855.
Matsushita, M., Hayakawa, Y. and Sawada, Y. (1985) Fractal structure and cluster statistics of Zinc-metal trees de-posited on a line electrode. Phys. Rev. A., v.32, pp.3814–3816.
McBirney, A.R. (1959) Factors governing emplacement of volcanic necks. Amer. Jour. Sci., v.257, pp.431–448.
Mitchell, R.H. (1986) Kimberlites: Mineralogy, geochemistry and petrology. Plenum, New York.
Mitra, G. (1979) Ductile deformation zones in Blue ridge basement rocks and estimation of finite strain. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., v.90, pp.935–951.
Morin, D., and Corriveau, L. (1996) Fragmentation processes and xenoliths transport in a Proterozoic minette dyke, Grenville Province, Quebec. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., v.125, pp.319–331.
Nicol, A., Walsh, J.J, Waterson, J. and Gillespie, P.A. (1996) Fault size distribution-are they really power-law? Jour. Struct. Geol., v.18, pp.191–197.
Parkar, A.J., Rickwood, P.C. and Tucker, D.H. (1990) Mafic dykes and emplacement mechanisms. Proceedings of the second International dyke conference, Adelaide, South Australia, v.23, pp.421–430.
Perfect, E. (1997) Fractal models for the fragmentation of rocks and soils: a review. Engg. Geol., v.48, pp.185–198.
Perugini, D. and Poli, G. (2000) Chaotic dynamic fractals in magmatic interactions processes: a different approach to the interpretation of mafic microgranular enclaves. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., v.175, pp.91–103.
Perugini, D., Speziali, A., Caricchi, L. and Kueppers, U. (2011) Application of fractal fragmentation theory to natural pyroclastic deposits; Insights into volcanic explosivity of the valentano scoria cone (Italy). Jour. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., v.202, pp.200–210.
Perugini, D., Valentini, L. and Poli, G. (2007) Insights into magma chamber processes from the analysis of size distribution of enclaves in lava flows: A case study from Vulcano Island (southern Italy). Jour. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., v.166, pp.193–203.
Pickering, G., Bull, J.M. and Sanderson, D.J. (1995) Sampling power-law distributions. Tectonophysics, v.248, pp.205–226.
Platten, M. (1982) A late Caledonian breccia dyke swarm in Glen Creran, near Glen Coe in Grampian Highlands. Geol. Magz., v.119, pp.169–180.
Pollard, D.D. (1987) Elementary fracture mechanics applied to the structural interpretation of dykes. In: Halls and W.F. Fahrig (Eds.), Mafic Dyke Swarms, Geological Association of Canada Special Paper, v.34, pp.5–24.
Poulimenos, G. (2000) Scaling properties of normal fault populations in the western Corinth Graben, Greece: Implications for fault growth in large strain settings. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.22, pp.307–322.
Rao, A.D.P., Rao, K.N. and Murthy, Y.G.K. (1987) Gabbro-anorthositepyroxenite complexes and alkaline rocks of Chimakurti-Elchuru area, Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, v.116, pp.1–20.
Rathna, K., Vijaya Kumar, K. and Ratnakar, J. (2000) Petrology of the dykes of Ravipadu, Prakasam Province, Andhra Pradesh, India. Jour. Geol. Soc. India., v.55, pp.339–412.
Ratnakar, J. and Leelanandam, C. (1989) Petrology of alkaline plutons from the eastern and southern Peninsular India. Mem. Geol. Soc. India., no.15, pp.145–176.
Ren, X., Kowallis, B.J. and Best, M.G. (1989) Palaeostress history of the Basin and Range province in western Utah and eastern Nevada from healed microcrack orientations in granites. Geology, v.17, pp.487–490.
Rickwood, P.C. (1990) The anatomy of a dyke and the determination of propagation and flow directions, In: A. J. Parker, P. C. Rickwood and D.H. Tucker (Eds.), Mafic dykes and Emplacement Mechanisms, Proceedings of the 2nd International Dyke Conference, Balkema Press, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. pp.81–100.
Rothrock, D.A. and Thorndike, A.S. (1984) Measuring of the sea ice floe size distributions. Jour. Geophys. Res., v.89, pp.6477–6486.
Roy, S.G., Johnson, S.E, Koons, P.O. and Jin, Z. (2012) Fractal analysis and thermal-elastic modeling of a subvolcanic magmatic breccia: The role of post-fragmentation partial melting and thermal fracture in clast size distributions. Geochem.Geophys.Geosyst., v.13, Q05009, doi:10.1029/2011GC004018.
Rubin, A.M. (1995) Propagation of magma filled cracks. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., v.23, pp.287–336.
Rubin, A.M. (1993) Tensile fracture of rocks at high confining pressure: implications for dyke propagation. Jour. Geophys. Res, v.98, pp.15915–15935.
Russ, J.C. (1995) The image processing handbook. Boca Raton, FL: CRC.
Sammis, C.G., Osborne, R.H., Anderson, J.L., Banerdt, M. and White, P. (1986) Self–similar cataclasis in the formation of fault gouge. Pure Appl. Geophys., v.124, pp.53–78.
Sarkar, A. and Paul, D.K. (1998) Geochronology of the Eastern Ghats Precambrian Mobile Belts–a review. Geol. Sur. India. Spec. Publ., v.44, pp.51–86.
Schlische, R.W., Young, S.S., Ackermann, R.V. and Gupta, A. (1996) Geometry and scaling relations of a population of very small rift-related normal faults. Geology. v.24, pp.683–686.
Schoutens, J.E. (1979) Empirical analysis of nuclear and high-explosive cratering and ejecta. Nuclear Geoplosics Sourcebook, v.55, part 2, section 4, Rep.DNA OIH–4–2, Def. Nuclear Agency, Bethesda, MD.
Sillitoe, R.H. (1985) Ore-related rupturing. Pure. Appld. Geophys., v.124, pp.159–174.
Spera, F.J. (1984) Carbon dioxide in petrogenesis III: Role of volatiles in the ascent of alkaline magma with special reference to xenoliths-bearing mafic lavas. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., v.88, pp.217–232.
Storti, F., Billi, A. and Salvini, F. (2003) Particle size distribution in natural carbonate fault rocks: insight for non–self-similar cataclasis. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., v.206, pp.173–186.
Subba Rao, T.V., Bhaskar Rao, Y.J., Sivaraman, T.V and Gopalan, K. (1989) Rb-Sr age and petrology of Elchuru alkaline complex: implications to alkaline magmatism in the Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt. In: Alkaline Rocks, Leelanadam, C. (Ed.), Mem. Geol. Soc. India., no.15, pp.207–223.
Turcotte, D. L. (1986) Fractals and fragmentation. Jour. Geophys. Res., v.91, pp.1921–1926.
Upadhyay, D., Raith, M.M., Mezger, K. and Hammerschmidt, K. (2006) Mesoproterozoic rift-related alkaline magmatism at Elchuru, Prakasam Alkaline Province, SE India. Lithos, v.89, pp.447–477.
Van Dijk, J.P., Bello, M., Toscano, C., Bersani, A. and Nardon, S. (2000) Tectonic model and three-dimensional fracture network analysis of Monte Alpi (Southern Apennines). Tectonophysics, v.324, pp.203–237.
Ventura, G., Gaudio, P.D. and Iezzi, G. (2006) Enclaves provide new insights on the dynamics of magma mingling: A case study from Salina Island (Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy). Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., v.243, pp.128–140.
Vijaya Kumar, K. and Leelanandam, C. (2008) Evolution of the Eastern Ghats Belts, India: A plate tectonic perspective. Jour. Geol. Soc. India., v.50, pp.641–644.
Vijaya Kumar, K. and Ratnakar, J. (2001) Petrogenesis of the Ravipadu gabbro pluton, Prakasam Alkaline Province, Andhra Pradesh. Jour. Geol. Soc. India., v.57, pp.113–140.
Vijaya Kumar, K., Ernst, W.G., Leelanandam, C., Wooden, J.L., Grove, M.J. (2011) Origin of ~2.5 Ga potassic granite from the Nellore Schist Belt, SE India: textural, cathodoluminescence, and SHRIMP U–Pb data. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., v.162, pp.867–888.
Vijaya Kumar, K., Frost, C.D., Frost, B.R. and Chamberlain, K.R. (2007) The Chimakurthi, Errakonda, and Upplapadu plutons, Eastern Ghats Belts, India: An unusual association of tholeiitic and alkaline magmatism. Lithos., v.97, pp.30–57.
Volland, S. and Kruhl, J.K. (2004) Anisotropy quantification: the application of fractals geometry methods on tectonic fracture patterns of a Hercynian fault zone in NW-Sardinia. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.26, pp.1489–1500.
Walsh, J.J. and Watterson, J. (1992) Populations of faults and fault displacement and their effects on estimates of fault-related regions extension. Jour. Struct. Geol., v.14, pp.701–712
Wolak, J., Yoshinobu, A.S. and Barnes, C.G. (2005) Xenoliths, foliations and folds in a big tank filled by many small increments. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abstracts with Programs, v.37, pp.71.
Wyllie, P.J. (1980) The origin of kimberlites. Jour. Geophy. Res., v.85, pp.6902–6910.
Yoshinobu, A.S. and Barnes, C.G. (2008) Is stoping a volumetrically significant pluton emplacement process? Discussion. Geol. Soc. Amer., v.120, pp.1080–1081.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nagaraju, B., Ghodke, S.S., Rathna, K. et al. Fractal Analysis of In Situ Host Rock Nepheline Syenite Xenoliths in a Micro-Shonkinite Dyke (The Elchuru Alkaline Complex, SE India). J Geol Soc India 91, 263–272 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-018-0849-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-018-0849-2