Skip to main content

Religious Involvement and the Black–White Paradox in Mental Health

Race and Social Problems volume 9, pages 63–78 (2017)Cite this article

Abstract

Despite demonstrating poorer physical health profiles, African Americans experience similar or more favorable mental health than whites, an unexpected pattern given their relatively disadvantaged social status. Given higher levels of religious involvement, a predominant attribution for the black–white paradox in mental health is differential religious involvement (stronger levels of religiosity among African Americans) but little research explicitly tests this assumption. Differential religious importance may also explain the mental health paradox, given past findings that religion is a stronger aspect in the lives of African Americans relative to whites. Using data from the National Survey of American Life, I investigate the black–white mental health paradox in depressive symptoms across three dimensions (spanning 18 measures) of religious involvement–organizational religious involvement, non-organizational religious involvement, and church-based social support. Specifically, I test whether black–white differences in either religious involvement or the importance of religiosity can explain mental health advantage of African Americans. Despite remarkably higher levels of religious involvement among African Americans relative to whites, these differences do not explain the mental health paradox. There was also no evidence supporting the differential impact of religious involvement argument. Future research should explore both positive and negative coping, in addition to the role of intersectionality when studying this unexpected trend.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  • Acevedo, G. A. (2010). Collective rituals or private practice in Texas? Assessing the impact of religious factors on mental health. Review of Religious Research, 52, 188–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Acevedo, G. A., Ellison, C. G., & Xu, X. (2014). Is it really religion? Comparing the main and stress-buffering effects of religious and secular civic engagement on psychological distress. Society and Mental Health, 4, 111–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allison, P. (1999). Multiple regression: A primer. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertera, E. M. (2005). Mental health in U.S. adults: The role of positive social support and social negativity in personal relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 22, 33–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bratter, J. L., & Eschbach, K. (2005). Race/ethnic differences in nonspecific psychological distress: Evidence from the National Health Interview Survey. Social Science Quarterly, 86, 620–644.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, J., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Kendler, K. S., Su, M., Williams, D., & Kessler, R. C. (2006). Specifying race-ethnic differences in risk for psychiatric disorder in a USA national sample. Psychological Medicine, 36, 57–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, J., Kendler, K. S., Su, M., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., & Kessler, R. C. (2005). Lifetime risk and persistence of psychiatric disorders across ethnic groups in the United States. Psychological Medicine, 35, 317–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Broman, C. L. (2005). Marital quality in black and white marriages. Journal of Family Issues, 26, 431–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. N., & Lesane-Brown, C. L. (2006). Race socialization messages across historical time. Social Psychology Quarterly, 69(2), 201–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burr, J. A., & Mutchler, J. E. (1999). Race and ethnic variation in norms of filial responsibility among older persons. Journal of Marriage and Family, 61, 674–687.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Census Bureau, U. S. (2005). Household income: 1999. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau.

    Google Scholar 

  • Census Bureau, U. S. (2009). Educational attainment in the United States: 2007. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chatters, L. M. (2000). Religion and health: Public health research and practice. Annual Review of Public Health, 21, 335–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., Bullard, K. M., & Jackson, J. S. (2009). Race and ethnic differences in religious involvement: African Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32, 1143–1163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., Lincoln, K. D., Nguyen, A., & Joe, S. (2011). Church-based social support and suicidality among African Americans and Black Caribbeans. Archives of Suicide Research, 15, 337–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., Woodward, A. T., & Nicklett, E. J. (2015). Social support from church and family members and depressive symptoms among older African Americans. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23, 559–567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Druss, B. G., & Walker, E. R. (2011). Mental disorders and medical comorbidity. New Brunswick, NJ: The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G., & Lee, J. (2010). Spiritual struggles and psychological distress: Is there a dark side of religion? Social Indicators Research, 98, 501–517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G., & Levin, J. S. (1998). The religion-health connection: Evidence, theory, and future directions. Health Education & Behavior, 25, 700–720.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G., Zhang, W., Krause, N., & Marcum, J. P. (2009). Does negative interaction in the church increase psychological distress? Longitudinal findings from the Presbyterian Panel Survey. Sociology of Religion, 70, 409–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Granberg, E. M., Edmond, M. B., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., & Kei, M. (2012). The association between racial socialization and depression: Testing direct and buffering associations in a longitudinal cohort of African American young adults. Society and Mental Health, 2(3), 207–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gray-Little, B., & Hafdahl, A. R. (2000). Factors influencing racial comparisons of self-esteem: A quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 26–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heeringa, S. G., Wagner, J., Torres, M., Duan, N., Adams, T., & Bergulnd, P. (2004). Sample designs and sampling methods for the Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Studies (CPES). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 13, 221–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Himle, J. A., Baser, R., Taylor, R. J., Campbell, R. D., & Jackson, J. S. (2009). Anxiety disorders among African Americans, blacks of Caribbean descent and non-Hispanic whites in the United States. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 5, 578–590.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, M., Kiecolt, K. J., Keith, V. M., & Demo, D. H. (2015). Racial identity and well-being among African Americans. Social Psychology Quarterly, 78(1), 25–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, J. S., & Knight, K. M. (2006). Race and self-regulatory health behaviors: The role of the stress response and the HPA axis in physical and mental health disparities. In K. W. Schaie & L. L. Carstensen (Eds.), Social structures, aging, and self-regulation in the elderly (pp. 189–239). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, J. S., Knight, K. M., & Rafferty, J. A. (2010). Race and unhealthy behaviors: Chronic stress, the HPA axis, and physical and mental health disparities over the life course. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 933–939.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, J. S., Torres, M., Caldwell, C. H., Neighbors, H. W., Nesse, R. M., Taylor, R. J., et al. (2004). The National Survey of American Life: A study of racial, ethnic, and cultural influences on mental disorders and mental health. The International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 13, 196–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kawachi, I., & Berkman, L. F. (2001). Social ties and mental health. Journal of Urban Health, 78, 458–467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M. (2007). Promoting and protecting mental health as flourishing: A complementary strategy for improving national mental health. American Psychologist, 6, 95–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M. (2009). The black-white paradox in health: Flourishing in the face of social inequality and discrimination. Journal of Personality, 77, 1677–1706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, K. M., Barnes, D. M., & Bates, L. M. (2011). Stress, coping, and depression: Testing a new hypothesis in a prospectively studied general population sample of U.S.-born whites and blacks. Social Science and Medicine, 72, 650–659.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koenig, H. G., McCullough, M. E., & Larson, D. B. (2001). Handbook of religion and health. New York: Oxford.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N. (2002a). Church-based social support and health in old age: Exploring variations by race. Journal of Gerontology, 57B, S332–S347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N. (2002b). Exploring race differences in a comprehensive battery of church-based social support measures. Review of Religious Research, 44, 126–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N. (2003). Religious meaning and subjective well-being in late life. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 58B, S160–S170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N. (2006a). Exploring the stress-buffering effects of church-based and secular social support on self-rated health in late life. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 61B, S35–S43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N. (2006b). Church-based social support and change in health over time. Review of Religious Research, 48, 125–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N., & Ellison, C. G. (2003a). Forgiveness by God, forgiveness of others, and psychological well-being in late life. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42(1), 77–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N., & Ellison, C. G. (2003b). Forgiveness by God, forgiveness of others, and psychological well-being in late life. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42, 77–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N., & Wullf, K. M. (2005). Friendship ties in the church and depressive symptoms: Exploring variations by age. Review of Religious Research, 46, 325–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lesane-Brown, C. L. (2006). A review of race socialization with black families. Developmental Review, 26(4), 400–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, D. S., Himle, J. A., Taylor, R. J., Abelson, J. M., Matusko, N., Muroff, J. R., et al. (2013). Panic disorder among African Americans, Caribbean blacks and non-Hispanic whites. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48(5), 711–723.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, D. S., Taylor, R. J., Nguyen, A. W., Chatters, L. M., & Himle, J. A. (2015). Family and friendship informal support networks and social anxiety disorder among African Americans and black Caribbeans. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50, 1121–1133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liang, J., Krause, N. M., & Bennett, J. M. (2001). Social exchange and well-being: Is giving better than receiving? Psychology and Aging, 16, 511–523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, K. D. (2000). Social support, negative social interactions, and psychological well-being. Social Service Review, 74, 231–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, K. D., Taylor, R. J., Bullard, K. M., Chatters, L. M., Woodward, A. T., Himle, J. A., et al. (2010). Emotional support, negative interaction, and DSM-IV lifetime disorders among older African Americans: Findings from the National Survey of American Life (NSAL). International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 25, 612–621.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maton, K. I. (1987). Patterns and psychological correlates of material support within a religious setting: The bidirectional support hypothesis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 15, 185–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mezuk, B., Abdou, C. M., Hudson, D., Kershaw, K. N., Rafferty, J. A., Lee, H., et al. (2013). ‘White box’ epidemiology and the social neurosciences of health behaviors: The environmental affordances model. Society and Mental Health, 3, 79–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mezuk, B., Rafferty, J. A., Kershaw, K. N., Hudson, D., Abdou, C. M., Lee, H., et al. (2010). Reconsidering the role of social disadvantage in physical and mental health: Stressful life events, health behaviors, race, and depression. American Journal of Epidemiology, 172, 1238–1249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mouzon, D. M. (2013). Can family relationships explain the race paradox in mental health? Journal of Marriage and Family, 75(2), 470–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mouzon, D. M. (2014). Relationships of choice: Can friendships or fictive kin relationships explain the race paradox in mental health? Social Science Research, 44, 32–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mouzon, D. M., & McLean, J. (2017). Internalized racism and mental health among African Americans, U.S.-born black Caribbeans, and foreign-born black Caribbeans. Ethnicity and Health, 22(1), 36–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newsom, J. T., Rook, K. S., Nishishiba, M., Sorkin, D., & Mahan, T. L. (2005). Understanding the relative importance of positive and negative social exchanges: Examining specific domains and appraisals. Journals of Gerontology, 60B, P304–P312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen, A. W., Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., Levine, D. S., & Himle, J. A. (2016). Family, friends, and 12-month PTSD among African Americans. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 51, 1149–1157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nooney, J., & Woodrum, E. (2002). Religious coping and church-based social support as predictors of mental health outcomes: Testing a conceptual model. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41, 359–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oates, G. L., & Goode, J. (2013). Racial differences in the effects of religiosity and mastery on psychological distress: Evidence from national longitudinal data. Society and Mental Health, 3, 40–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pew Research Center. (2010). The decline of marriage and rise of new families. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rook, K. S. (2001). Emotional health and positive versus negative social exchanges: A daily diary analysis. Applied Developmental Science, 5, 86–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfield, S., & Mouzon, D. M. (2013). Gender and mental health. In C. S. Aneshensel & J. C. Phelan (Eds.), Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health (2nd ed., pp. 277–296). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., Keyes, C. L. M., & Hughes, D. L. (2003). Status inequalities, perceived discrimination, and eudaimonic well-being: Do the challenges of minority life hone purpose and growth? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 275–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., Keyes, C. L. M., & Hughes, D. L. (2004). Psychological well-being in MIDUS: Profiles of ethnic/racial diversity and life-course uniformity. In O. G. Brim, C. D. Ryff, & R. C. Kessler (Eds.), How healthy are we? A national study of well-being at midlife (pp. 398–424). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schieman, S., Bierman, A., & Ellison, C. G. (2013). Religion and mental health. In C. S. Aneshensel, J. C. Phelan, & A. Bierman (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of mental health (2nd ed., pp. 457–478). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Schieman, S., Pudrovska, T., Pearlin, L. I., & Ellison, C. G. (2006). The sense of divine control and psychological distress: Variations across race and socioeconomic status. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 45, 529–549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sprecher, S., Brooks, J. E., & Avogo, W. (2013). Self-esteem among young adults: Differences and similarities based on gender, race, and cohort (1990–2012). Sex Roles, 69, 264–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. J., Chae, D. H., Lincoln, K. D., & Chatters, L. M. (2015). Extended family and friendship support networks are both protective and risk factors for major depressive disorder, and depressive symptoms among African Americans and black Caribbeans. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 203(2), 132–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. J., & Chatters, L. M. (2011). Religious media use among African Americans, Black Caribbeans, and Non-Hispanic Whites: Findings from the National Survey of American Life. Journal of African American Studies, 15, 433–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. J., Chatters, L. M., & Abelson, J. M. (2012). Religious involvement and DSM-IV 12 month and lifetime major depressive disorder among African Americans. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 200(10), 856–862.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. J., Chatters, L. M., & Jackson, J. S. (2007). Religious and spiritual involvement among African Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites: Findings from the National Survey of American Life. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 62B, S238–S250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. J., Chatters, L. M., Jayakody, R., & Levin, J. S. (1996). Black and white differences in religious participation: A multisample comparison. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 35, 403–410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. J., Chatters, L. M., & Joe, S. (2011). Religious involvement and suicidal behavior among African Americans and Black Caribbeans. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 199(7), 478–486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. J., Chatters, L. M., Woodward, A. T., & Brown, E. (2013). Racial and ethnic differences in extended family, friendship, fictive kin, and congregational informal support networks. Family Relations, 62, 609–624.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. J., Mouzon, D. M., Nguyen, A. W., & Chatters, L. M. (2016). Reciprocal family, friendship, and congregational support networks of African Americans: Findings from the National Survey of American Life. Race and Social Problems, 8, 326–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, M. C., Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., & Allen, W. R. (1990). Socio-demographic and environmental influences on racial socialization by Black parents. Child Development, 61, 401–409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, R. J., & Brown, T. N. (2009). Social support and mental health. In T. L. Scheid & T. N. Brown (Eds.), A handbook for the study of mental health: Social context, theories, and systems (pp. 200–225). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., & Crocker, J. (2002). Race and self-esteem: Meta-analyses comparing Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians and comment on Gray-Little and Hafdahl (2000). Psychological Bulletin, 128, 371–408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waite, L. J. (1995). Does marriage matter? Demography, 32, 483–507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wethington, E., & Kessler, R. C. (1986). Perceived support, received support, and adjustment to stressful life events. Journal of Health and Social Behaviors, 27, 78–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R. (2005). The health of U.S. racial and ethnic populations. Journal of Gerontology, 60B, 53–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., Gonzalez, H. M., Neighbors, H., Nesse, R., Abelson, J. M., Sweetman, J., et al. (2007). Prevalence and distribution of major depressive disorder in African Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites: Results from the National Survey of American Life. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 305–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J. S., & Anderson, N. B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socioeconomic status, stress, and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2, 335–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, Y., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Socioeconomic status and mental health. In C. S. Aneshensel & J. C. Phelan (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 151–166). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 33 Livingston Avenue, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA

    Dawne M. Mouzon

  2. Institute for Health, Health Care Policy, and Aging Research, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 112 Paterson Street, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA

    Dawne M. Mouzon

Authors
  1. Dawne M. Mouzon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dawne M. Mouzon.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Mouzon, D.M. Religious Involvement and the Black–White Paradox in Mental Health. Race Soc Probl 9, 63–78 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-017-9198-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-017-9198-9

Keywords

  • Mental health
  • Depression
  • Race
  • Religion
  • African Americans