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Effects of search engine advertising on user clicks, conversions, and basket choice

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Abstract

Many firms place ads in search engines in order to motivate users to visit their website. However, users may react differently to an ad. For example, some users who intended to click on the organic result may now click on the ad, which creates unnecessary costs and diminishes profits. This paper presents the first systematic investigation of all effects on users an ad can cause during their search with a given keyword at a certain point in time. It covers the three sequential decisions users make: whether (and where) to click, whether to convert, and what (or how much) to buy. We develop a model by which each effect can separately be quantified and regressed on the search context, allowing insights into what drives user reactions. As a demonstration for its application, we conduct a large-scale field experiment on brand bidding, the practice of placing ads for brand names.

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Notes

  1. Due to a policy by Google, the conversion behaviour and the basket choice of users who visit the firm’s website via the organic result are not traceable if they use a secure internet connection (https). However, a sufficiently large number of users used a standard internet connection (http), so that we can base our estimates on their behaviour, assuming that it does not differ significantly from that of https-users.

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Correspondence to Patrick Winter.

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Appendices

Appendix

Identification of the model

Since our model contains several latent variables, which, furthermore, are allowed to interact with each other, it is not intuitively clear that it is identified. Therefore, we now elaborate on this point.

Let us first consider the “control part” of our model, that is, eqs. (3), (7), and (10) (in combination with (1a), (5a), and (14a)). These equations are independent from the others, so that their identification can be analysed separately. They can be represented as

$$ {\displaystyle \begin{array}{l}{U}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle }={f}_k^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\left({\boldsymbol{X}}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle },\\ {}{U}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }={f}_k^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\left({\boldsymbol{X}}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle },\\ {}\log \left({\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\right)={f}_k^{1:1}\left({\boldsymbol{X}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\right)+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1},\end{array}} $$
(16)

where the \( {\boldsymbol{X}}_{k,t}^{\dots } \)’s are vectors summarizing the exogenous variables in the respective equations. Conditional on the latent utilities \( {U}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {U}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), (16) is essentially a system of seemingly unrelated regression equations (SUREs), which is known to be identified (Zellner 1962).

Next, we consider the “treatment part” of our model, but exclude all equations relating to the click level for the moment. The remaining eqs. (6), (8), (9), (11), (12), and (13) (in combination with (5b) and (14b)) can be summarized and represented as

$$ {\displaystyle \begin{array}{l}{U}_{k,t}^{\to j:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }={f}_k^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\left({\boldsymbol{X}}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)+{f}_k^{1:1\to j:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\left({\boldsymbol{X}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:\left\langle 1\right\rangle },{\mathrm{AdPosition}}_{k,t}\right)+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle },\\ {}\begin{array}{l}\log \left({\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{\to j:1}\right)={f}_k^{1:1}\left({\boldsymbol{X}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\right)+{f}_k^{1:1\to j:1}\left({\boldsymbol{X}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1},{\mathrm{AdPosition}}_{k,t}\right)+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1}+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1},\\ {}\begin{array}{l}\log \left({\mathrm{CPC}}_{k,t}\right)={f}_k^{CPC}\left({\boldsymbol{X}}_{k,t}^{CPC}\right)+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{CPC},\\ {}\log \left({\mathrm{AdPosition}}_{k,t}\right)={f}_k^{AP}\left({\boldsymbol{X}}_{k,t}^{AP}\right)+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{AP}.\end{array}\end{array}\end{array}} $$
(17)

(17) is not a system of SUREs because \( {U}_{k,t}^{\to j:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( \log \left({\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{\to j:1}\right) \) depend on the ad position, which is endogenous. Since (17) is triangular, however, its likelihood and posterior distribution are the same as for a system of SUREs (Zellner 1962, Hausman 1975). Such systems are identified if the endogenous variable is determined by at least one exogenous variable that is not part of the other equations in the system; concretely, \( {\boldsymbol{X}}_{k,t}^{AP} \) needs to contain at least one variable that none of the other variable vectors contains. This condition is satisfied in our model because Bidk, t is such a variable.

Given that (17) is identified, \( {f}_k^{CPC} \), \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{CPC} \), \( {f}_k^{AP} \), and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{AP} \) are identified similar to the components of (16). \( {f}_k^{1:1\to j:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {f}_k^{1:1\to j:1} \) are also identified because \( {f}_k^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {f}_k^{1:1} \) can be replaced with their estimates from the control part. In contrast, it cannot be concluded from the sums \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1}+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1} \), which are identified similar to the error terms in (16), on \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1} \) because \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1} \) are not known, respectively. Still, the corresponding elements of the covariance matrix are identified. This is because the distributions of \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1} \) can be parameterized from the control part. We give an example for demonstration. The covariance of \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1}+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1} \) can be decomposed as follows:

Put differently, we have \( \mathrm{Cov}\left[{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle },{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1}\right]=\mathrm{Cov}\left[{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle },{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1}+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1}\right]-\mathrm{Cov}\left[{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle },{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1}\right] \); i.e., the covariance of \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1} \) is uniquely determined by the covariance of \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1} \), which can be estimated from the control part, and the covariance of \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1}+{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1} \), which is estimated in the treatment part. Here we have used that \( \mathrm{E}\left[{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1}\right]=\mathrm{E}\left[{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1}\right]=0 \) because \( \mathrm{Cov}\left[{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle },{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1}\right]=\mathrm{Cov}\left[{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle },{\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1}\right]=0 \) due to (14a) and (14b).

Finally, let us consider the click-level effects of SEA, that is, eqs. (2a), (2b), and (4b) (in combination with (1b), (4a) and (14b)). As indicated in the paper, it would not be possible to identify the four click-level effects for each observation in the treatment scenario without using a model because each observation contributes only two data points (the respective click probabilities). Modelling them allows their identification only under certain conditions. It is not easy to see for our actual model as presented in the paper whether these conditions are met, so that we will use a toy model and dataset for illustration. The toy dataset consists of only two observations for the treatment scenario and is shown in Table 9.

Table 9 Observations in the toy dataset

In the toy model, we set \( {p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle }={\alpha}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle }+{\beta}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {x}_k \) (replacing (3)) and \( {p}_{k,t}^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle }={\alpha}^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle }+{\beta}^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle}\cdotp {x}_k \) (replacing (4a) and (4b)), where xk is a dummy variable. We assume that α〈1〉 is known to equal 0.3 (e.g., because the control part has already been estimated) and set β0 → 〈2〉 = β1 → 〈0〉 = β1 → 〈2〉 = 0, so that only the addition on ad effect may depend on xk. We also proceed as if \( {p}_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {p}_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle } \) were observed directly instead of the corresponding numbers of individual searches and clicks. For the toy dataset, (2a) and (2b) would then lead to the following equation system arising during estimation:

$$ {\displaystyle \begin{array}{l}\left(\mathrm{I}\right)\ 0.4=0.3\cdotp \left(1-{\alpha}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle }-{\alpha}^{1\to \left\langle 0\right\rangle}\right)+0.7\cdotp {\alpha}^{0\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle },\\ {}\left(\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I}\right)\ 0.1=0.3\cdotp {\alpha}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle }+0.7\cdotp {\alpha}^{0\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle },\\ {}\begin{array}{l}\left(\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I}\right)\ 0.2=\left(0.3+{\beta}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp \left(1-{\alpha}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle }-{\alpha}^{0\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)+\left(0.7-{\beta}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp \left({\alpha}^{0\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle }+{\beta}^{0\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right),\\ {}\left(\mathrm{I}\mathrm{V}\right)\ 0.1=\left(0.3+{\beta}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {\alpha}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle }+\left(0.7-{\beta}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {\alpha}^{0\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle }.\end{array}\end{array}} $$
(18)

We consider three variants of the toy model. In variant 1, we set β〈1〉 = β0 → 〈1〉 = 0, which means that the probability of a click without an ad and all click-level effects are constant. For this case, the right-hand sides of (I) and (III) on one hand and of (II) and (IV) on the other hand are identical. Regarding (I) and (III), this entails are direct contradiction because the left-hand sides differ. Regarding (II) and (IV), for which the left-hand sides are equal, one equation is redundant. Since (18) contains four unknown variables (the α’s) and the same number of equations, it is not identified in these cases.

In variant 2, we set again β0 → 〈1〉 = 0 but assume that β〈1〉 is known to equal 0.5. This means that all click-level effects are constant but that the probability of a click without an ad may vary across keywords. For this case, (18) again contains four unknown variables, but there are no contradicting or redundant equations, so that it is identified. Its solution is α0 → 〈2〉 = α1 → 〈2〉 = 0.1, α0 → 〈1〉 = 0.52, α1 → 〈0〉 = 0.78.

In variant 3, we assume again that β〈1〉 is known to equal 0.5 but allow the addition on organic effect to differ between keywords, that is, impose no restrictions on β0 → 〈1〉. For this case, (18) is again not identified. This is because it now contains five unknown variables (the α’s and β0 → 〈1〉) but still only four equations. Note that this problem would not be solved if we had observations for more days because the additional equations were again either contradicting or redundant. Obviously, allowing the other click-level effects to also differ between keywords would make things worse.

Summarizing, the toy model is only identified if the “explaining variation” in \( {p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) is greater than the “explained variation” in \( {p}_{k,t}^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle } \). This is also true for our actual model. Practically, it means that \( {p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) should be determined by at least one factor that is not also a determinant of \( {p}_{k,t}^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle } \). We exploit unobserved keyword heterogeneity for this purpose. This is not the only possible choice; for example, we have also experimented with distinguishing between weekdays and weekends. However, we have found this variable to be only a very weak predictor of \( {p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), so that it can contribute only marginally to the explaining variation. In contrast, unobserved keyword heterogeneity has been found to have a substantial influence on \( {p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) (with σ〈1〉 = 0.66 as reported in Table 3), making it a good choice.

One can assume that the click-level effects are identified in our actual model for the same reasons for which they are identified in variant 2 of our toy model. However, due to the use of a multinomial logit link function, the inclusion of correlated error terms in the latent utilities, and some other hurdles, this is difficult to track analytically. Therefore, we conducted a simulation study to confirm identification. We considered a reduced version of our model for this purpose to accelerate estimation. Besides the click level, the reduced model also included the conversion level to explore whether its correlation with the click level is identified. The revenue level was not included because it is analogous to the conversion level. Furthermore, the explaining variables in (3) and (7) were replaced by a single, randomly drawn one, x1k, t. The explaining variables in (4b) and (8) were replaced by x1k, t and a second random variable x2k, t that summarizes the variables which do not exist in the control scenario (such as the ad position). x1k, t and x2k, t were drawn from standard normal distributions. The equations relating to the ad position and the CPC ((12) and (13)) were not considered. (14a) and (14b) were adapted correspondingly. The data generation mechanism was based on the equations of our model. The number of individual searches was drawn as Nk, tUniform(1; 10000). The parameters to be estimated were generated as follows:

  1. 1.

    Draw βNormal(0; 1) for each ββ, where β summarizes all regression coefficients (including the intercepts) in the reduced versions of (3), (4b), (7), and (8).

  2. 2.

    Draw \( {\Sigma}^{\prime}\sim {Wishart}^{-1}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cdotp \mathbf{1}(2);2\right) \) and \( {\Sigma^{\to}}^{\prime}\sim {Wishart}^{-1}\left(\frac{1}{5}\cdotp \mathbf{1}(5);5\right) \), where 1(n) denotes the n-dimensional identity matrix. Calculate Σ = Σ/ max(Σ) · 0.25 and Σ = Σ→′/ max( Σ→′) · 0.25.

  3. 3.

    Draw σ〈1〉Uniform(0; 3) or set σ〈1〉 = 1 (see below). Set σ1 : 〈1〉 = 1 and σ1 : 1 → : 〈1〉 = 1.

We carried out three experiments, using 100 replications each. In experiment 1, we were interested in the influence the absolute magnitude of unobserved keyword heterogeneity has on the estimation results, so we varied only σ〈1〉 across replications. The purpose of experiment 2 was to investigate the influence of the relative magnitude of unobserved keyword heterogeneity; thus, we held σ〈1〉 constant across replications but varied β. In experiment 3, the complete data generation mechanism was repeated in each replication, which simulates the application of the model to different real-world datasets.

We measured the simulation error by the absolute deviation \( \left|v-\hat{v}\right| \) between the true value v and its estimate \( \hat{v} \). The average results across all replications are reported in Table 10. As can be seen, all parameters were, on average, accurately recovered. The deviation between the true values and their estimates was usually lower than one decimal. Given that the absolutes of the true values were, on average, comparatively large, this deviation can be neglected. This suggests that our model is identified. Interestingly, the results for experiments 1 and 2 indicate that the deviations are acceptable even if the absolute or relative magnitude of unobserved keyword heterogeneity is comparatively low.

Table 10 Absolute deviations in the simulation study

Estimation approach

We estimated our model using the Gibbs sampler JAGS (Plummer 2003). Since the control part of our model is independent of its treatment part (by (14a) and (14b)), as mentioned earlier, we used a two-stage approach. In the first stage, we considered only the control part and, correspondingly, the observations made in the control periods of our field experiment. In the second stage, we used the estimated values from the control part to estimate the treatment part by the observations made in the treatment periods.

The specification for an iteration in the first stage (for \( t\in \mathcal{T} \)) is essentially as follows:

  1. 1.

    Draw α〈1〉, \( {\alpha}_l^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\in {\boldsymbol{\alpha}}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), α1 : 〈1〉, \( {\alpha}_l^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\in {\boldsymbol{\alpha}}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), α1 : 1, and \( {\alpha}_l^{1:1}\in {\boldsymbol{\alpha}}^{1:1} \). Prior distribution: Normal(0; 102).

  2. 2.

    Draw \( {\beta_l^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{l=1,\dots, 3} \), \( {\beta_l^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{l=1,\dots, 2} \), and \( {\beta_l^{1:1}}_{l=1,\dots, 2} \). Prior distribution: Normal(0; 102).

  3. 3.

    Draw σ〈1〉, σ1 : 〈1〉, and σ1 : 1. Prior distribution: Uniform(0; 10).

  4. 4.

    Draw Σ. Prior distribution: \( {Wishart}^{-1}\left(\frac{1}{3}\cdotp \mathbf{1}(3);3\right) \).

  5. 5.

    For each keyword k, draw \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), and \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{1:1} \) as specified in (3), (7), and (10), conditional on σ〈1〉, σ1 : 〈1〉, and σ1 : 1, respectively.

For each keyword k and each point in time t:

  1. 6.

    Calculate \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1} \) by (10), given α1 : 1, α1 : 1, \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{1:1} \), and \( {\beta_l^{1:1}}_{l=1,\dots, 2} \).

  2. 7.

    Draw \( \left({\epsilon}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\kern0.5em {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\kern0.5em {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1}\right) \) as specified in (14a), conditional on Σ and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1} \).

  3. 8.

    Calculate \( {U}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) by (3), given α〈1〉, α〈1〉, \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), \( {\beta_l^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{l=1,\dots, 3} \), and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \).

  4. 9.

    Calculate \( {U}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) by (7), given α1 : 〈1〉, α1 : 〈1〉, \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), \( {\beta_l^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{l=1,\dots, 3} \), and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \).

  5. 10.

    Calculate the likelihood function. The likelihood for the click level conditional on \( {p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) is given by \( {\prod}_{k,t}\left(\begin{array}{c}{N}_{k,t}\\ {}{N}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\end{array}\right)\cdotp {p_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}^{N_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle }}\cdotp {\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)}^{N_{k,t}-{N}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle }} \) due to (1a). Similarly, the likelihood for the conversion level conditional on \( {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) is given by \( {\prod}_{k,t}\left(\begin{array}{c}{N}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\\ {}{N}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\end{array}\right)\cdotp {p_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}^{N_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }}\cdotp {\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)}^{N_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle }-{N}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }} \) due to (5a). The likelihood for the revenue level is accounted for by drawing the error terms in step 7.

In the second stage (for \( t\in {\mathcal{T}}^{\to } \)), each iteration consists essentially of the following steps:

  1. 1.

    Draw αi → 〈jji, \( {\alpha}_l^{\left\langle i\right\rangle \to j}\in {{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}^{\left\langle i\right\rangle \to j}}_{j\ne i} \), α1 : 1 → : 〈1〉, \( {\alpha}_l^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\in {\boldsymbol{\alpha}}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), α1 : 1 → : 1, \( {\alpha}_l^{1:1\to :1}\in {\boldsymbol{\alpha}}^{1:1\to :1} \), αCPC, \( {\alpha}_l^{CPC}\in {\boldsymbol{\alpha}}^{CPC} \), αAP, and \( {\alpha}_l^{AP}\in {\boldsymbol{\alpha}}^{AP} \). Prior distribution: Normal(0; 102).

  2. 2.

    Draw \( {\beta_l^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle}}_{j\ne i;l=1,\dots, 4} \), \( {\beta_l^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{l=1,\dots, 3} \), \( {\beta_l^{1:1\to :1}}_{l=1,\dots, 3} \), \( {\beta_l^{CPC}}_{l=1,\dots, 4} \), and \( {\beta_l^{AP}}_{l=1,\dots, 4} \), as well as \( {\gamma_l^{1:1\to 2:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{l=1,\dots, 2} \) and \( {\gamma_l^{1:1\to 2:1}}_{l=1,\dots, 2} \). Prior distribution: Normal(0; 102).

  3. 3.

    Draw σ1 : 1 → : 〈1〉, σ1 : 1 → : 1, σCPC, and σAP. Prior distribution: Uniform(0; 10).

  4. 4.

    Draw Σ. Prior distribution: \( {Wishart}^{-1}\left(\frac{1}{9}\cdotp \mathbf{1}(9);9\right) \).

  5. 5.

    For each keyword k, draw \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{1:1\to :1} \), \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{CPC} \), and \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{AP} \) as specified in (8), (11), (12), and (13), conditional on σ1 : 1 → : 〈1〉, σ1 : 1 → : 1, σCPC, and σAP, respectively.

For each keyword k and each point in time t:

  1. 6.

    Draw \( \left({\epsilon}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\kern0.5em {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\kern0.5em {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1}\right) \) as specified in (14a), using the estimate of Σ.

  2. 7.

    Calculate \( {U}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) by (3), given \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), using the estimates of α〈1〉, α〈1〉, \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {\beta_l^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{l=1,\dots, 3} \).

  3. 8.

    Calculate \( {U}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) by (7), given \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), using the estimates of α1 : 〈1〉, α1 : 〈1〉, \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), and \( {\beta_l^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{l=1,\dots, 2} \).

  4. 9.

    Calculate \( \log \left({\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\right) \) by (10), given \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1} \), using the estimates of α1 : 1, α1 : 1, \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{1:1} \), and \( {\beta_l^{1:1}}_{l=1,\dots, 2} \).

  5. 10.

    Calculate \( {\epsilon_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1}}_{j=1,\dots, 2} \) and \( \Delta \mathrm{log}\left({\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1}\right) \) by (9) and (11), given \( \log \left({\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\right) \), α1 : 1 → : 1, α1 : 1 → : 1, \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{1:1\to :1} \), \( {\beta_l^{1:1\to :1}}_{l=1,\dots, 3} \), and \( {\gamma_l^{1:1\to 2:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{l=1,\dots, 2} \).

  6. 11.

    Calculate \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{CPC} \) by (12), given αCPC, αCPC, \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{CPC} \), and \( {\beta_l^{CPC}}_{l=1,\dots, 4} \).

  7. 12.

    Calculate \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{AP} \) by (13), given αAP, αAP, \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{AP} \), and \( {\beta_l^{AP}}_{l=1,\dots, 4} \).

  8. 13.

    Draw \( \left({\epsilon_{k,t}^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle}}_{j\ne i}\kern0.5em {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\kern0.5em {\epsilon_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1}}_{j=1,\dots, 2}\kern0.5em {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{CPC}\kern0.5em {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{AP}\right) \) as specified in (14b), conditional on Σ, \( {\epsilon_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:1}}_{j=1,\dots, 2} \), \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{CPC} \), and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{AP} \).

  9. 14.

    Calculate \( {U_{k,t}^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle}}_{j\ne i} \) by (4b), given αi → 〈jji, αi〉 → jji, \( {\beta_l^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle}}_{j\ne i;l=1,\dots, 4} \), and \( {\epsilon_{k,t}^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle}}_{j\ne i} \).

  10. 15.

    Calculate \( {p_{k,t}^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle}}_{j\ne i} \) by (4a), given \( {U_{k,t}^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle}}_{j\ne i} \).

  11. 16.

    Calculate \( {p_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle j\right\rangle}}_{j=1,\dots, 2} \) by (3), given \( {p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( {p_{k,t}^{i\to \left\langle j\right\rangle}}_{j\ne i} \).

  12. 17.

    Calculate \( \Delta {U_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{j=1,\dots, 2} \) by (8), given α1 : 1 → : 〈1〉, α1 : 1 → : 〈1〉, \( {\overset{\sim }{\alpha}}_k^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \), \( {\beta_l^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{l=1,\dots, 3} \), and \( {\epsilon}_{k,t}^{1:1\to :\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \).

  13. 18.

    Calculate \( {U_{k,t}^{\to j:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{j=1,\dots, 2} \) and \( {p_{k,t}^{\to j:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{j=1,\dots, 2} \) by (6), given \( {U}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle } \) and \( \Delta {U_{k,t}^{1:1\to j:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{j=1,\dots, 2} \).

  14. 19.

    Calculate the likelihood function. The likelihood for the click level conditional on \( {p_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle j\right\rangle}}_{j=1,\dots, 2} \)is given by \( \prod \limits_{k,t}\left(\begin{array}{c}{N}_{k,t}\\ {}{N}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle },{N}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 2\right\rangle}\end{array}\right)\cdotp {p_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle}}^{N_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle }}\cdotp {p_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}}^{N_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle }}\cdotp {\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle }-{p}_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\right)}^{N_{k,t}-{N}_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle }-{N}_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle }} \) due to (1b). The likelihood for the conversion level conditional on \( {p_{k,t}^{\to j:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}_{j=1,\dots, 2} \) is given by \( \prod \limits_{k,t}\left(\begin{array}{c}{N}_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle}\\ {}{N}_{k,t}^{\to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\end{array}\right)\cdotp {p_{k,t}^{\to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}^{N_{k,t}^{\to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }}\cdotp {\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)}^{N_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle }-{N}_{k,t}^{\to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }}\cdotp \left(\begin{array}{c}{N}_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\\ {}{N}_{k,t}^{\to 2:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\end{array}\right)\cdotp {p_{k,t}^{\to 2:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}}^{N_{k,t}^{\to 2:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }}\cdotp {\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\to 2:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)}^{N_{k,t}^{\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle }-{N}_{k,t}^{\to 2:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }} \) due to (5b). The likelihood for the revenue level, the CPC, and the ad position is accounted for by drawing the error terms in step 13, respectively.

To generate new random candidate values for the next iteration, we employed the method of Wichmann and Hill (1982). We used 100,000 iterations to estimate the control part of our model and 200,000 iterations to estimate its more complex treatment part. The same numbers of iterations were used for the adaptation and “burn-in” of the sampler.

Estimation result details

Tables 11 and 12 give the estimated covariance matrices for the control and the treatment scenario, respectively, which have been omitted in the paper for brevity.

Table 11 Estimated covariance matrix for the control scenario
Table 12 Estimated covariance matrix for the treatment scenario

Balance sheet of SEA and derivation

To derive the balance sheet of SEA, we first express the factors in (15b) that depend on the effects of SEA (or their transformations) as described in the paper. E[ΔProfitk, t] is then given by

$$ {\displaystyle \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{E}\left[{\Delta \mathrm{Profit}}_{k,t}\right]=\left({p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle }-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle }-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 0\right\rangle }+\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\\ {}\cdotp \left({p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }+\Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp \left({\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}+\Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 1:1}\right)\cdotp \pi +\left({p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle }+\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\right)\\ {}\cdotp \left(\left({p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle }+\Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 2:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp \left({\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}+\Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 2:1}\right)\cdotp \pi -{\mathrm{CPC}}_{k,t}\right)-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi .\end{array}} $$
(19)

Expanding (D.1), we get (terms that cancel each other out are shown but crossed off for easier understanding)

$$ {\displaystyle \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{E}\left[{\Delta \mathrm{Profit}}_{k,t}\right]=+{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi \\ {}+{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 1:1}\cdotp \pi +{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 1:1}\cdotp \pi \\ {}\begin{array}{l}-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi \\ {}-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 1:1}\cdotp \pi -{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 1:1}\cdotp \pi \\ {}\begin{array}{l}-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 0\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi -{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 0\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi \\ {}-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 0\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 1:1}\cdotp \pi -{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 0\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 1:1}\cdotp \pi \\ {}\begin{array}{l}+\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi +\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi \\ {}+\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 1:1}\cdotp \pi +\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 1:1}\cdotp \pi \\ {}\begin{array}{l}+{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 2:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi \\ {}+{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 2:1}\cdotp \pi +{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 2:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 2:1}\cdotp \pi \\ {}\begin{array}{l}-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{CPC}}_{k,t}\\ {}+\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi +\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 2:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi \\ {}\begin{array}{l}+\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 2:1}\cdotp \pi +\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 2:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1\to 2:1}\cdotp \pi \\ {}-\left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{CPC}}_{k,t}\end{array}\end{array}\end{array}\end{array}\end{array}\end{array}\end{array}} $$
(20)

Each term in (20) can be interpreted as a profit component. It can be seen that two terms cancel out. The first, \( {p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi \), describes the profit generated by hypothetical visitors whose behaviour (at any level) is not influenced by SEA and equals, therefore, E[Profitk, t]. The other term that cancels out, \( {p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1\to \left\langle 2\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi \), describes the profit generated by cannibalized users whose conversion behaviour and basket choice is not influenced by SEA. This shows that the cannibalization effect does, ceteris paribus, not affect the firm’s revenues, but only its costs (as captured by another term).

The remaining terms can be attributed to the effect(s) to which they relate. Terms that relate to exactly one effect describe the “pure” impact of this effect on expected profits. Terms that relate to more than one effect describe the impact of the interaction of these effects. Such interaction can happen across the three levels of user behaviour investigated. For example, the terms \( \left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi \) and \( {p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi \) describe the change in E[ΔProfitk, t] if only the addition on organic effect or only the conversion effect were active, respectively. The impact of the interaction of these effects is captured by the term \( \left(1-{p}_{k,t}^{\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\right)\cdotp {p}_{k,t}^{0\to \left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp \Delta {p}_{k,t}^{1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle \to 1:\left\langle 1\right\rangle}\cdotp {\mathrm{RPCV}}_{k,t}^{1:1}\cdotp \pi \). We distribute terms that relate to several effects equally, as there is no reason for a different attribution. E.g., the aforementioned term is attributed to one half to the addition on organic effect and to the other half to the conversion effect.

Finally, we distinguish terms by whether they are positive (increasing E[ΔProfitk, t]) or negative (decreasing E[ΔProfitk, t]). While the click-level effects are always positive by construction, the conversion effect and the revenue effect can also be negative. Therefore, their sign determines the orientation of the terms that relate to them. Table 13 shows how the balance sheet of SEA appears for the case of non-negative conversion and revenue effects. The extension to the other cases is straightforward. E[ΔProfitk, t] is then the residual item that balances the effects of SEA. Therefore, for the case of E[ΔProfitk, t] ≥ 0, it has to be written on the “passive” side of the balance sheet, as it is done in Table 13.

Table 13 Balance sheet of SEA

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Winter, P., Alpar, P. Effects of search engine advertising on user clicks, conversions, and basket choice. Electron Markets 30, 837–862 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-019-00376-5

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