Abstract
Induced partial saturation using chemical substances is an innovative technique to mitigate liquefaction inflicted damage. Despite being a promising method, there is little research on its application beneath shallow foundations, and its effects on the settlement behavior have yet to be elucidated. In this study, the powder of denture cleanser, containing hydrogen peroxide, was mixed with dry sand in different proportions. Gas bubbles were generated in the pore spaces as the sand-chemical mixtures were saturated with water, producing partially saturated samples at varying degrees of saturation in the range of 79.5 to 98%. A series of 1-g shaking table tests were conducted on nearly and partially saturated sand models with relative densities ranging from 33.5 to 76.3%. Detailed analysis of the experimental data indicated that foundation settlements and excess pore pressures developed in partially saturated sand models were smaller than those in nearly saturated counterparts. The reduction in the settlement was more prominent at lower degrees of saturation, lower relative densities, and higher stress levels. These results highlight that chemically generated gas bubbles may be an effective practical method of reducing the liquefaction-induced settlements that shallow foundations suffer in the event of an earthquake.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bertalot D, Brennan AJ, Villalobos FA (2013) Influence of bearing pressure on liquefaction-induced settlement of shallow foundations. Géotechnique 63(5):391–399. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.11.P.040
Bhattacharya S, Hyodo M, Goda K, Tazoh T, Taylor CA (2011) Liquefaction of soil in the Tokyo Bay area from the 2011 Tohoku (Japan) earthquake. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 31(11):1618–1628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2011.06.006
Bozyiğit I, Javadi A, Altun S (2021) Strength properties of xanthan gum and guar gum treated kaolin at different water contents. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 13(5):1160–1172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2021.06.007
Bray J, Sancio R, Durgunoglu T, Onalp A, Youd T, Stewart J, Seed R, Cetin O, Bol E, Baturay M, Christensen C, Karadayilar T (2004) Subsurface characterization at ground failure sites in Adapazari, Turkey. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 130(7):673–685. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2004)130:7(673)
Cabalar AF, Karabash Z, Erkmen O (2016) Stiffness of a biocemented sand at small strains. Eur J Environ Civ 22(10):1238–1256. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2016.1248791
Cabalar AF, Awraheem MH, Khalaf MM (2018) Geotechnical properties of a low-plasticity clay with biopolymer. J Mater Civ Eng 30(8):04018170. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002380
Choi SG, Chang I, Lee M, Lee JH, Han JT, Kwon TH (2020) Review on geotechnical engineering properties of sands treated by microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) and biopolymers. Constr Build Mater 246(June):118415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118415
Coelho PALF (2007) In situ densification as a liquefaction resistance measure for bridge foundations. Doctoral thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.19161
Cubrinovski M, Bray JD, Taylor M, Giorgini S, Bradley B, Wotherspoon L, Zupan J (2011) Soil liquefaction effects in the Central Business District during the February 2011 Christchurch Earthquake. Seismol Res Lett 82(6):893–904. https://doi.org/10.1785/gssrl.82.6.893
Dashti S, Bray JD, Pestana JM, Riemer M, Wilson D (2010) Mechanisms of seismically induced settlement of buildings with shallow foundations on liquefiable soil. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 136(1):151–164. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000179
DeJong JT, Mortensen BM, Martinez BC, Nelson DC (2010) Bio-mediated soil improvement. Ecol Eng 36(2):197–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2008.12.029
Eseller-Bayat EE (2009) Seismic response and prevention of liquefaction failure of sands partially saturated through introduction of gas bubbles. Doctoral thesis, University of Northeastern, Boston. http://hdl.handle.net/2047/d20000133. Accessed 21 March 2022
Eseller-Bayat EE, Gulen DB (2020) Undrained dynamic response of partially saturated sands tested in a DSS-C device. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 146(11):04020118. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002361
Eseller-Bayat EE, Yegian MK, Alshawabkeh A, Gokyer S (2013) Liquefaction response of partially saturated sands. I: Experimental results. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 139(6):863–871. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000815
Gallagher PM, Mitchell JK (2002) Influence of colloidal silica grout on liquefaction potential and cyclic undrained behavior of loose sand. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 22(9):1017–1026. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0267-7261(02)00126-4
Gokyer S (2009) Inducing and imaging partial degree of saturation in laboratory sand specimens. Master thesis, University of Northeastern, Boston. http://hdl.handle.net/2047/d20000134. Accessed 21 March 2022
He J, Chu J, Ivanov V (2013) Mitigation of liquefaction of saturated sand using biogas. Géotechnique 63(4):267–275. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.SIP13.P.004
Ishihara K (1993) Liquefaction and flow failure during earthquakes. Géotechnique 43(3):351–451. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1993.43.3.351
Kumar R, Horikoshi K, Takahashi A (2019) Centrifuge testing to investigate effects of partial saturation on the response of shallow foundation in liquefiable ground under strong sequential ground motions. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 125:105728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2019.105728
Kutter BI (2013) Effects of capillary number, Bond number, and gas solubility on water saturation of sand specimens. Can Geotech J 50(2):133–144. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2011-0250
Lee M, Gomez MG, Kortbawi ME, Ziotopoulou K (2020) Examining the liquefaction resistance of lightly cemented sands using microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP). J Geotech Geoenviron Eng Geo-Congress. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784482834.007
Marasini NP, Okamura M (2015) Air injection to mitigate liquefaction under light structures. Int J Phys Model Geol 15(3):129–140. https://doi.org/10.1680/jphmg.14.00005
Mitchell JK, Baxter CDP, Munson TC (1995) Performance of improved ground during earthquakes.Soil Improvement for Earthquake Hazard Mitigation. Geotech Special Publ 49:1–36. http://worldcat.org/isbn/0784401233. Accessed 21 March 2022
Montoya BM, DeJong JT, Boulanger RW (2013) Dynamic response of liquefiable sand improved by microbial-induced calcite precipitation. Géotechnique 63(4):302–312. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.SIP13.P.019
Mueller HJ, Greener EH (1980) Characterization of some denture cleansers. J Prosthet Dent 43(5):491–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3913(80)90316-9
Nababan FRP (2015) Development and evaluation of induced partial saturation (IPS), delivery method and its implementation in large laboratory specimens and in the field. Doctoral thesis, Northeastern University, Boston. http://hdl.handle.net/2047/D20200382. Accessed 21 March 2022
Nakano A (2018) Microbe-induced desaturation of sand using pore pressure development by way of denitrification. Geotech Lett 8(1):1–4. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgele.17.00039
O’Donnell ST, Rittmann BE, Kavazanjian E (2017) MIDP: Liquefaction mitigation via microbial denitrification as a two-stage process. I: Desaturation. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 143(12):04017094. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001818
Okamura M, Soga Y (2006) Effects of pore fluid compressibility on liquefaction resistance of partially saturated sand. Soils Found 46(5):703–708. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.46.695
Okamura M, Ishihara M, Tamura K (2006) Degree of saturation and liquefaction resistances of sand improved with sand compaction pile. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 132(2):258–264. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:2(258)
Okamura M, Takebayashi M, Nishida K, Fujii N, Jinguji M, Imasato T, Yasuhara H, Nakagawa E (2011) In-situ desaturation test by air injection and its evaluation through field monitoring and multiphase flow simulation. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 137(7):643–652. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000483
Rebata-Landa V, Santamarina JC (2012) Mechanical effects of biogenic nitrogen gas bubbles in soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 138(2):128–137. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000571
Seed RB, Cetin KO, Ress MOS, Kammerer AM, Wu J, Pestana JM, Riemer MF et al (2003) Recent advances in soil liquefaction engineering: A unified and consistent framework. Proceedings of the 26th Annual ASCE Los Angeles Geotechnical Spring Seminar, Long Beach, California, pp 301–371
Tsuchida H (1970) Prediction and countermeasure against liquefaction the liquefaction in sand deposits. Paper presented at the Seminar, Port and Harbour Research Institute, Ministry of Transport, Yokosuka, Japan, 3.1–3.33 (in Japanese)
Viand SMS, Eseller-Bayat EE (2022) Partial saturation as a liquefaction countermeasure: a review. Geotech Geol Eng 40:499–530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-021-01926-5
Yegian MK, Eseller-Bayat E, Alshawabkeh A, Ali S (2007) Induced partial saturation (IPS) for liquefaction mitigation: Experimental investigation. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 133(4):372–380. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:4(372)
Zamani A, Montoya BM (2019) Undrained cyclic response of silty sands improved by microbial induced calcium carbonate precipitation. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 120:436–448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2019.01.010
Zamani A, Xiao P, Baumer T, Carey TJ (2021) Mitigation of liquefaction triggering and foundation settlement by MICP treatment. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 147(10):04021099. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002596
Zeybek A (2017) Air injection technique to mitigate liquefaction beneath shallow foundations. Dissertation, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.14729
Zeybek A (2022) Suggested method of specimen preparation for triaxial tests on partially saturated sand. Geotech Test J 45(2):20210168. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20210168
Zeybek A, Madabhushi SPG (2017a) Centrifuge testing to evaluate the liquefaction response of air-injected partially saturated soils beneath shallow foundations. Bull Earthq Eng 15(1):339–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-016-9968-6
Zeybek A, Madabhushi SPG (2017b) Influence of air injection on the liquefaction-induced deformation mechanisms beneath shallow foundations. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 97:266–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.03.018
Zeybek A, Madabhushi SPG (2017c) Durability of partial saturation to counteract liquefaction. Proc Inst Civ Eng: Ground Improv 170(2):102–111. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgrim.16.00025
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Professor Gopal Madabhushi for kindly authorizing the use of the shaking table and for his useful recommendations. The technical support of the staff at the Schofield Centre of Cambridge University and Civil Engineering Laboratory of Mus Alparslan University is also gratefully acknowledged.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Zeynal Abiddin Erguler
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zeybek, A. Shaking table tests on seismic performance of shallow foundations resting on partially saturated sands. Arab J Geosci 15, 774 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-10032-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-10032-6