Skip to main content

An investigation on the assessment of mercury concentration and its spatial distribution in Kodaikanal Lake sediments, South India

Arabian Journal of Geosciences volume 14, Article number: 1629 (2021) Cite this article

Abstract

In this study, the anthropogenic sources, the toxic concentration of mercury (Hg), and its spatial distribution were investigated by using fourteen different sediment samples, collected from different locations in Kodaikanal Lake. The research was carried out by evaluating different parameters such as sediment characteristics and the concentration of mercury. The study also involves establishing pollution indices like enrichment factor, index of geo-accumulation, contamination factor, and a potential ecological risk factor for the sediment samples. The characterization studies were done by energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) and the particle size analyzer to determine the concentration of mercury and to classify the sediments based on the size of the particles, respectively. Statistical analysis and the spatial distribution of mercury were assessed by using two different software tools such as Geostatistic (SPSS Statistics software 17.0) and Geostatistics analyst module (ArcGIS 10.1). The weight percentage of sand, silt, and clay in the collected sediment samples were found to be 61.24 to 83.55%, 15.24 to 36.78%, and 0.92 to 1.98% respectively. The weight percentage of organic matter was from 6.00 to 16.00% and total carbonate content varies from 2.22 to 7.54%. The results obtained from the EDXRF confirmed that the concentration of mercury in the collected samples ranges from 19 to 30 mg/kg of sediment and it indicates that almost all parts of the lake exhibit notably higher concentration. Pearson’s correlation coefficient value of 0.74 signifies the association of Hg to the depth of the lake. The high loading values of mud (0.92), Hg (0.91), and water depth (0.86) for PC1 are concerning the 61.10% expressed, the same source for Hg and fine particles and they were, transported and deposited together in deeper depth. The Hg content in the sample to enrichment factor exhibits high to very high (20.95 to 33.81) and index of geo-accumulation with moderate to strongly polluted nature of the sediments (2.34 to 3.00). The fine-grained sediments, water depth, and organic matter were found to be significant controlling factors of Hg distribution in the sediments of the lake. The values of EF and Igeo show that the enhancement of sediment by heavy metal (Hg) was by anthropogenic activities such as discharge of the solid waste from the thermometer factory. Additionally, the contamination factor and potential ecological risk factors were calculated as 47.52 to 75 and 1900 to 3000 respectively, and express the prevalence of very high contamination factors and very high ecological risk. The results also suggest that Hg in lake sediments represents its polluted nature; it could also be influenced by industrial and human activities in the catchment.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

References

  • Aasif ML, Rayees AS, Hema A, Fousiya AA (2018) Geochemistry, spatial distribution and environmental risk assessment of the surface sediments: Anchar Lake, Kashmir Valley, India. Environ Earth Sci 77(65):1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Abuduwaili J, Zy Z, Fq J (2015) Assessment of the distribution, sources and potential ecological risk of heavy metals in the dry surface sediment of Aibi Lake in Northwest China. PLoS One 10(3):e0120001. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen JRL, Thornley DM (2004) Laser granulometry of Holocene estuarine silts: effects of hydrogen peroxide treatment. Holocene 14:290–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Almeida CA, Quintar S, Gonzalez P, Mallea MA (2007) Influence of urbanization and tourist activities on the water quality of the Potrero de los Funes River (San Luis-Argentina). Environ Monit Assess 133(1-3):459–465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-006-9600-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anju M, Banerjee DK (2012) Multivariate statistical analysis of heavy metals in soils of a Pb - Zn mining area, India. Environ Monit Assess 184:4191–4206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bai J, Xiao R, Cui B, Zhang K, Wang Q, Liu X (2011) Assessment of heavy metal pollution in wetland soils from the young and old reclaimed regions in the Pearl River Estuary, South China. Environ Pollut 159:817–824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.11.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balamurugan P, Vasudevan S, Ramkumar T (2017) Searching of toxic metal pollution by using geospatial technology on the Kodaikanal Lake-near industrial area. Arab J Geosci 10:449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Birth GA (2003) A scheme for assessing human impacts on coastal aquatic environments using sediments. In: Woodcoffe CD, Furness RA (eds) Coastal GIS 2003. Wollongong University papers in center for maritime policy, Australia Wollongong, p 14

    Google Scholar 

  • Cao Y, Lin C, Zhang X (2021) Distribution and geochemical processes of arsenic in Lake Qinghai Basin, China. Water 13:1091. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13081091

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen CW, Chen CF, Dong CD (2012) Distribution and accumulation of mercury in sediments of Kaohsiung River Mouth, Taiwan. APCBEE Procedia 1:153–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcbee.2012.03.025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng MD, Schroeder WH (2000) Potential atmospheric transport pathways for mercury measured in the Canadian high Arctic. J Atmos Chem 35:101–107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coelho JP, Pereira ME, Duarte A, Pardal MA (2005) Macroalgae response to a mercury contamination gradient in a temperate coastal lagoon (Ria de Aveiro, Portugal). Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 65(3):492–500

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Condie KC (1993) Chemical composition and evolution of the upper continental crust: contrasting results from surface samples and shales. Chem Geol 104:1–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dames URS, Moore (2002) Environmental site assessment and preliminary risk assessment of mercury, Kodaikanal thermometer factory, Tamilnadu. Prepared for Hindustan Lever Limited (HLL):165–166

  • Dickinson WW, Dunbar GB, McLeod H (1996) Heavy metal history from cores in Wellington Harbour, New Zealand. Environ Geol 27:59–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ding X, Ye S, Yuan H, Krauss KW (2018) Spatial distribution and ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in coastal surface sediments in the Hebei Province offshore area, Bohai Sea, China. Mar PollutBull 131:655–661

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Douay F, Pelfrene A, Planque J, Fourrier H, Richard A, Roussel H, Girondelot B (2013) Assessment of potential health risk for inhabitants living near a former lead smelter, Part 1: metal concentrations in soils, agricultural crops, and homegrown vegetables. Environ Monit Assess 185:3665–3680

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durnford D, Dastoor A, Figueras-Nieto D, Ryjkov A (2010) Long range transport of mercury to the Arctic and across Canada. Atmos Chem Phys 10:6063–6086

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emmanuel E, Sombo T, Ugwanyi J (2018) Assessment of heavy metals concentration in shore sediments from the bank of River Benue, North-Central Nigeria. J Environ Prot 6:35–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald WF, Engstrom DR, Mason RP, Nater EA (1998) The case for atmospheric mercury contamination in remote areas. Environ Sci Technol 32(1):1–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folk RL (1974) Petrography of sedimentary rocks. Hemphill Publishing Company, Austin, Texas, p 182

    Google Scholar 

  • Frignani M, Bellucci LG (2004) Heavy metals in marine coastal sediments: assessing sources, fluxes, history and trends. Ann Chim 94:479–486

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaiero DM, Ross RG, Depetris PJ, Kempe S (1997). Spatial and temporal variability of total non-residual heavy metals content in stream sediment from the Suquia River System, Cordoba, Argentina. Water Air Soil Pollut 93:303–319

  • García-Rico L, Rodríguez MV, Jara-Marini ME (2006) Geochemistry of mercury in sediment of oyster areas in Sonora, Mexico. Mar Pollut Bull 52:447–469

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Godson PS, Magesh NS, Peter TS, Chandrasekar N, Krishnakumar S, Vincenta SGT (2018) A baseline study on the concentration of trace elements in the surface sediments off Southwest coast of Tamil Nadu, India. Mar Pollut Bull 126:381–388

  • Gopal V, Achyuthan H, Jayaprakash M (2017) Assessment of trace elements in Yercaud Lake sediments, southern India. Environ Earth Sci 76:63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hakanson L (1980) An ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control a sedimentological approach. Water Res 14:975–1001. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(80)90143-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harland BJ, Taylor D, Wither A (2001) Corrigendum to ‘the distribution of mercury and other trace metals in the sediments of the Mersey Estuary over 25 years 1974-1998’. Sci Total Environ 279:231

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hornung H, Karm MD, Cohen Y (1989) Trace metal distribution on sediments and benthic fauna of Haifa Bay, Israel. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 29:43–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7714(89)90072-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hortellani MA, Sarkis JES, Bonetti J, Bonetti C (2005) Evaluation of mercury contamination in sediments from Santos-São Vicente Estuarine System, São Paulo State, Brazil. J Braz Chem Soc 16:1140–1149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Islam MS, Ahmed MK, Raknuzzaman M, Mamun MHA, Islam MK (2015) Heavy metal pollution in surface water and sediment: a preliminary assessment of an urban river in a developing country. Ecol Indic 48:282–291

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karthikeyan P, Vennila G, Venkatachalapathy R, Subramani T, Prakash R, Aswini MK (2018) Assessment of heavy metals in the surface sediments of the Emerald Lake using of spatial distribution and multivariate techniques. Environ Monit Assess 190:668

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karunasagar D, Balarama Krishna MVB, Anjaneyulu Y, Arunachalam J (2006) Studies of mercury pollution in a lake due to a thermometer factory situated in a tourist resort: Kodaikanal, India. Environ Pollut 143(1):153–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mikutta R, Kleber M, Kaiser K, Jahn R (2005) Review: organic matter removal from soils using hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite, and disodium peroxodisulfate. Soil Sci Am J 69:120–135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mody N (2001) Dangerous mercury thermometer factory and waste dump in India has major links to US Company. http://www.greenpeaceusa.org/media/press_releases/01_03_07text.htm. Accessed 6 Jul 2010

  • Mucha AP, Vasconcelos MTSD, Bordalo AA (2003) Macro benthic community in the Douro estuary: relations with trace metals and natural sediment characteristics. Environ Pollut 121:169–180

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muller G (1969) Index of geoaccumulation in sediments of the Rhine River. Geojournal 2:108–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Muller PJ, Suess E (1979) Productivity, sedimentation rate, and sedimentary organic matter in the oceans-I. Organic carbon preservation. Deep-Sea Res. Part A. Oceanogr Res Pap 26:1347–1362

    Google Scholar 

  • Nabholz JV (1991) Environmental hazard and risk assessment under the United States Toxic Substances Control Act. Sci Total Environ 1091:649–665

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nityanand J, Murali R, Dhinakaran (2017) Study indicates high level of mercury in fish at Kodai Lake. IIT, Hyderabad. https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/141117/high-mercury-levels-in-fish-at-kodai-lake-iit-report.html: Nation Current Affairs 14 Nov 2017 High mercury levels 

  • Omran ESE, Abd El Razek AA (2012) Mapping and screening risk assessment of heavy metal concentrations in soils of the Bahr El-Baker Region, Egypt. J Soil Sci Environ Manag 6:182–195

    Google Scholar 

  • Pan L, Fang G, Wang Y, Wang L, Su B, Li D, Xiang B (2018) Potentially toxic element pollution levels and risk assessment of soils and sediments in the upstream River, Miyun reservoir, China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15(11):2364

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira ME, Duarte AC, Millward GE, Abreu SN, Vale C (1998) An estimation of industrial mercury stored in sediments of a confined area of the lagoon of aveiro (Portugal). Water Sci Technol 37:125–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salomons W, Forstner U (1984) Metals in the hydrocycle. Springer, New York

  • Schintu M, Degetto S (1999) Sedimentary records of heavy metals in the industrial harbour of Portovesme, Sardinia Italy. Sci Total Environ 241:129–141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schumacher BA (2002) Methods for the determination of total organic carbon (TOC) in soils and sediments. ecological risk assessment support center, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas Review Jour 25

  • Shi JB, Ip CCM, Zhang G, Jiang GB, Li XD (2010) Mercury profiles in sediments of the Pearl River Estuary and the surrounding coastal area of South China. Environ Pollut 158:1974–1979

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh A, Sharma RK, Agrawal M, Marshall FM (2010) Health risk assessment of heavy metals via dietary intake of foodstuffs from the wastewater irrigated site of a dry tropical area of India. Food Chem Toxicol 48:611–619

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor SR (1964) Abundance of chemical elements in the continental crust: a new table. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 28:1273–1285

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor SR, McLennan SM (1985) The continental crust: its composition and evolution. Blackwell Scientific Publication, Carlton 312

  • Torres Escribano S, Ruiz A, Barrios L, Velez D, Montoro R (2011) Influence of Hg bioaccessibility on exposure assessment associated with consumption of cooked predatory fish in Spain. J Sc Food Agricul 91:981–986

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turekian KK, Wedepohl KH (1961) Distribution of the elements in some major units of the earth’s crust. Geol Soc Am Bull 72:175–192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ubwa SA (2013) Levels of some heavy metals contamination of street dust in the industrial and high traffic tensity areas of Jos Metropolis. J Biol Environ Sci 3:13–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaasma T (2008) Grain-size analysis of lacustrine sediments: a comparison of pre-treatment methods. Estonian J Ecol 57(4):231–243

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vasiliu D, Bucse A, Lupascu N, Ispas B, Gheablau C, Stanescu I (2020) Assessment of the metal pollution in surface sediments of coastal Tasaul Lake (Romania). Environ Monit Assess 192:749

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walkley A, Black IA (1934) An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining organic carbon in soils: effect of variations in digestion conditions and of inorganic soil constituents. Soil Sci 63:251–263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wentworth CK (1922) A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments. J Geol 5:377–392

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Teng Y, Lu S, Wang Y, Jiao X (2014) Evaluation of soil contamination indices in a mining area of Jiangxi, China. PLoS One 9(11):e112917. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112917

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yan N, Liu W, Xie H, Gao L, Han Y, Wang M, Li H (2016) Distribution and assessment of heavy metals in the surface sediment of Yellow River. China J Environ Sci 39:45–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang L, Wong MH (2007) Environmental mercury contamination in China: Sources and impacts. Environ Int 33:108–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng C (2006) Using multivariate analyses and GIS to identify pollutants and their spatial patterns in urban soils in Galway. Ireland Environ Pollut 142:501–511

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the Analytical Spectroscopy Section, Department of Analytical Chemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, India, for the support at varying stages of this work. The manuscript was greatly improved by the valuable comments from the editors and anonymous reviewers.

Funding

The authors gratefully acknowledge the Promotion of University Research and Scientific Excellence (PURSE), and the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, for its financial support in the form of a research grant.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, -608 002, Annamalai Nagar, India

    Balamurugan Palani, Sivaprakasam Vasudevan, Thirunavukkarasu Ramkumar & Selvaganapathi Rajendiran

Authors
  1. Balamurugan Palani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sivaprakasam Vasudevan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Thirunavukkarasu Ramkumar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Selvaganapathi Rajendiran
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Balamurugan Palani.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Amjad Kallel

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Palani, B., Vasudevan, S., Ramkumar, T. et al. An investigation on the assessment of mercury concentration and its spatial distribution in Kodaikanal Lake sediments, South India. Arab J Geosci 14, 1629 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-08033-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-08033-y

Keywords

  • Mercury pollution
  • Industrial activities
  • Spatial distribution
  • Kodaikanal Lake