Abstract
The soil moisture is an important component in the plant’s growth that decreases with time. Soil moisture content relies on climate change, urban heat island (UHI), and population. The purpose of the investigation is based on the soil moisture changes that are with different prospective in which soil moisture index (SMI) with normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), SMI with land surface temperature (LST), and SMI with LST and NDVI involved. Similarly, the satellite images of Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS (Operational Land Imager/Thermal Infrared Sensor) and Landsat 4-5 TM (Thematic Mapper) were based on examination and co-operate the RS/GIS techniques. All satellite data images were downloaded from the website of earthexplorer. The ERDAS IMAGINE 9.2, Microsoft Excel, and ArcGIS 10.3.1 software from diverse techniques were adopted like LST, SMI with LST, SMI with LST and NDVI, NDVI, SMI with NDVI, and LST with NDVI and all of the graphs were developed except LST and LST with NDVI. The study concludes that the SMI with LST decreased reasons of LST increased plus SMI with NDVI and SMI with LST and NDVI both increased in the review area, and all changes were examined from the images (1992 and 2019) comparisons. Furthermore, all of the changes graphically observed the high values of the no-change classes.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
AccuWeather Karachi weather (2019). https://www.accuweather.com/en/pk/karachi/261158/january-weather/261158?year=2019&view=list. Accessed 1 Oct 2019
Ali SS, Khan MU, Shah SS (2015) Soil moisture retrieval from MODIS and AMSRE satellite data: a case Study of Sindh Province, Pakistan. J Basic Appl 11:193–206. https://doi.org/10.6000/1927-5129.2015.11.28
Boersma L, Kirkham D, Norum D, Ziemer R, Guitjens J, Davidson J, Luthin J (1971) Soil moisture. Eos Trans. AGU 52(6):IUGG279-IUGG285
Chaudhry QZ, Rasul G, Kamal A, Mangrio MA, Mahmood S (2015) Technical report on Karachi heat wave June 2015. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Climate Change, Ministry of Climate Change, Pakistan. http://www.ndma.gov.pk/files/heatwave.pdf. Accessed 19 September 2018
Copernicus Global Land Service (2019). Soil Water Index. https://land.copernicus.eu/global/products/swi. Accessed 1 Oct 2019
COSMOS-UK (2019). What is soil moisture?. https://cosmos.ceh.ac.uk/soilmoisture. Accessed 1 Oct 2019
Drought.gov (2019) Soil Moisture. https://www.drought.gov/drought/data-maps-tools/soil-moisture. Accessed 1 Oct 2019
Durrani R, Iqbal MD, Jamal A, Dilawar U (2017) The urban heat island (UHI) effect a final common pathway for heat stroke. Pak J Surg 33(2):146–149
Earth Science Week (2019). Soil Moisture. https://www.earthsciweek.org/classroom-activities/soil-moisture. Accessed 1 Oct 2019
Encyclopedia (2019). Britannica. Soil moisture. https://www.britannica.com/science/hydrologic-sciences/Interception#ref106195. Accessed 1 Oct 2019
Ghazal L, Zubair S, Kazmi JH (2016) Integrated satellite and GIS based assessment of urbanization in Karachi. J GeoSpace Sci 1(2):31–42
Hunt ED, Hubbard KG, Wilhite DA, Arkebauer TJ, Dutcher AL (2009) The development and evaluation of a soil moisture index. Int J Climatol: J RMetS 29(5):747–759. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1749
Khan J, Omar T (2014) Impacts of urbanization on land surface temperature: the case study of Karachi. Pakistan. First International Young Engineers Convention (IYEC) 495
Khan IA, Arsalan MH, Ghazal L, Siddiqui MF, Mehdi MR, Zia I, Salam IU (2018) Satellite based assessment of soil moisture and associated factors for vegetation cover: a case study of pakistan and adjoining regions. Pak J Bot 50:699–709
Lemonsu A, Viguie V, Daniel M, Masson V (2015) Vulnerability to heat waves: impact of urban expansion scenarios on urban heat island and heat stress in Paris (France). Urban Clim 14:586–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2015.10.007
Mahboob MA, Atif I, Iqbal J (2015) Remote sensing and GIS applications for assessment of urban sprawl in Karachi, Pakistan. Sci Technol and Dev 34:179–188
Ningrum W (2018) Urban heat island towards urban climate. Paper presented at the IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environ Sci. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/118/1/012048
Population of 2018 Karachi Population 2018 (2017). http://populationof2018.com/karachi-population-2018.html. Accessed 27 Nov 2018
Potić I, Bugarski M, Matić-Varenica J (2017) Soil moisture determination using remote sensing data for the property protection and increase of agriculture production. Paper presented at the 2017 Worldbank conference on land and poverty”, The World Bank, Washington DC. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.30426.59845
Qureshi S (2010) The fast growing megacity Karachi as a frontier of environmental challenges: Urbanization and contemporary urbanism issues. J Geogr Reg Plann 3(11):306–321
Saha A, Patil M, Goyal VC, Rathore DS (2018) Assessment and impact of soil moisture index in agricultural drought estimation using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Paper presented at the Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute Proceedings. Doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ECWS-3-05802
Sajjad SH, Blond N, Batool R, Shirazi SA, Shakrullah K, Bhalli MN (2015) Study of urban heat island of karachi by using finite volume mesoscale model. J Basic Appl 11:101–105. https://doi.org/10.6000/1927-5129.2015.11.13
Schmitz B (2019). Determination of moisture content in soil. https://www.jove.com/science-education/10011/determination-of-moisture-content-in-soil. Accessed 1 Oct 2019
Shah B, Ghauri B (2015) Mapping urban heat island effect in comparison with the land use, land cover of Lahore district. Pak J Meteo 11(22)
Sharma PK, Kumar D, Srivastava HS, Patel P (2018) Assessment of different methods for soil moisture estimation: a review. J Remote Sens GIS 9(1):57–73
Soil Moisture (1999). https://weather.msfc.nasa.gov/landprocess/. Accessed 1 Oct 2019
Taktikou E, Bourazanis G, Papaioannou G, Kerkides P (2016) Prediction of soil moisture from remote sensing data. Procedia Eng 162:309–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.11.066
Umar M, Munir S, Rahman S (2011) Estimation of land surface temperature and soil moisture levels of Umerkot District Sindh. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265728277_Estimation_of_Land_Surface_Temperature_and_Soil_Moisture_Levels_of_Umarkot_District_Sindh. Accessed 1 October 2019
Umar M, Munir S, Ali I, Qureshi S, Notarnicola C, Rahman S, Weng Q (2016) 13 Soil moisture using optical remote sensing and ground measurements. Remote Sens for Sustainability 243
Wikipedia Demographics of Karachi (2018). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Karachi. Accessed 27 Nov 2018
Wikipedia Karachi (2018). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karachi. Accessed 27 Nov 2018
Wikipedia Water Content (2019). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_content. Accessed 1 Oct 2019
Wikitravel Karachi (2018). https://wikitravel.org/en/Karachi. Accessed 27 Nov 2018
World Population Review Karachi Population (2018). http://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/karachi-population/. Accessed 27 Nov 2018
Younis SMZ, Iqbal J (2015) Estimation of soil moisture using multispectral and FTIR techniques. Egypt J Remote Sens Space Sci 18(2):151–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2015.10.001
Zahid M, Iqbal W, Rasul G, Park K, Yang H (2014) CMIP5 projected soil moisture changes over South Asia. Pak J Meteo Vol 10(20)
Zakir M (2018) GIS and RS based spatio-temporal analysis of soil moisture/water content variation in southern irrigated part of Sindh, Pakistan. J Remote Sens GIS 7:250. https://doi.org/10.4172/2469-4134.1000250
Acknowledgments
ALHAMDULILLAH! I am so many thankful to Almighty Allah who has supported my finished work. I am also grateful to my lovely parents and dear supervisor Dr. Sheeba Afsar.
Funding
The research work is supported by the Students Financial Aid Office (SFAO) (grant numbers 8 thousand rupees per month), Department of Geography, University of Karachi, Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The declaration of the interest is in the geography subject, and it is related to the various Earth-related changes as well as soil moisture and urban settlement, while the research is in which all of these disclosures are described.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Biswajeet Pradhan
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sabah, A., Afsar, S. Assessing spatio-temporal changes of soil moisture: a case study at Karachi, Pakistan. Arab J Geosci 13, 1302 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-06247-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-06247-0