Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Health Safety of Drinking Water Supplied in Africa: A Closer Look Using Applicable Water-Quality Standards as a Measure

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Exposure and Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The World Health Organization (WHO) is mandated to provide health information to member countries as one of its major objective. In water quality, it developed health-based guidelines to assist nations and other organisations involved, with a baseline for developing their own enforceable water-quality standards. The European Union (EU), United States (US) and China have standards developed for their regions and nations. Such regional standards are useful for sharing and transferring technology among member countries or states to meet the respective set quality standards. However, Africa has not developed such regional standards. This study investigates 21 water-quality parameters of 18 selected African countries, to assess if they are significantly different across countries and compare them to those of WHO, EU, US and China. There were significant statistical differences among twenty of the twenty-one studied parameters. The mean quality standards of Africa were generally higher (weaker) than those of WHO, EU and China but compared well with those of US. Nations were urged to frequently update without delays, their standards as new information become available, as there are emerging novel pollutants that are of health concern. The African Union or smaller groupings like the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and Southern African Development Community (SADC) should develop regional water-quality standards and benefit from knowledge and technological sharing, leading to improved supply of high-quality water in their individual countries.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdi H, Williams LJ (2010) Principal component analysis. Wiley Interdiscip Rev 2:433–459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ATSDR (2005) Toxicological profile for lead. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta

  • Bawaskar HS, Himmatrao Bawaskar P, Himmatrao Bawaskar P (2010) Chronic renal failure associated with heavy metal contamination of drinking water: a clinical report from a small village in Maharashtra. Clin Toxicol 48:768

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beaumont JJ, Sedman RM, Reynolds SD, Sherman CD, Li LH, Howd RA, Sandy MS, Zeise L, Alexeeff GV (2008) Cancer mortality in a Chinese population exposed to hexavalent chromium in drinking water. Epidemiology 19:12–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd DR (2006) The water we drink: an international comparison of drinking water quality standards and guidelines

  • Brender JDOJ, Felkner M, Suarez L, Marckwardt W, Hendricks KA (2004) Dietary nitrites and nitrates, nitrosatable drugs, and neural tube defects. Epidemiology 15:330–336

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bucio LG, García C, Souza V, Hernández E, Gonzalez C, Betancourt M, Gutierrez-Ruiz MC (1999) Uptake, cellular distribution and DNA damage produced by mercuric chloride in a human foetal hepatic cell line. Mutat Res 423:65–72

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Butkus MAB, Bays JT, Labare MP (2003) Influence of surface characteristics on the stability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Appl Environ Microbiol 69:3819–3825

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cantor KP (1997) Drinking water and cancer. Cancer Causes Control 8(3):292–308

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Costet N, Villanueva CM, Jaakkola JJ, Kogevinas M, Cantor KP, King WD (2011) Water disinfection by-products and bladder cancer: Is there a European specificity? A pooled and meta-analysis of European case–control studies. Occup Environ Med:379–385

  • Dzoma BM, Moralo RA, Motsei LE, Ndou RV, Bakunzi FR (2010) Preliminary findings on the levels of five heavy metals in water, sediments, grass and various specimens from cattle grazing and watering in potentially heavy metal polluted areas of the north West Province of South Africa. J Anim Vet Adv 9:3026–3033

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-Luqueño F, López-Valdez F, Gamero-Melo P, LunaSuárez S, Aguilera-González EN, Martínez AI, GarcíaGuillermo MS, Hernández-Martínez G, Herrera-Mendoza R, ÁlvarezGarza MA, Pérez-Velázquez IR (2013) Heavy metal pollution in drinking water—a global risk for human health: a review. Afr J Environ Sci Technol 7:567–584

  • GOS (2009) Turbidity (for private water and health regulated public water supplies). Government of Saskatchewan

  • Hespanhol I, Prost AME (1994) WHO guidelines and national standards for reuse and water quality. Water Res 28:119–124

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • IARC (2004) Some drinking-water disinfectants and contaminants, including arsenic. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  • IARC (2012) Some chemicals present in industrial and consumer products, food and drinking-water. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  • Jekel MR (1991) Aluminum in water: How it can be removed? Use of aluminum salts in treatment. In: Proceedings of the International Water Supply Association, Copenhagen

  • Johri NJ, Jacquillet G, Unwin R (2010) Heavy metal poisoning: the effects of cadmium on the kidney. Biometals 23:783–792

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jolliffe I (2002) Principal component analysis. Wiley Online Library

  • Jones DC, Miller GW (2008) The effects of environmental neurotoxicants on the dopaminergic system: a possible role in drug addiction. Biochem Pharmacol:569–581

  • Khan TA (2011) Trace elements in the drinking water and their possible health effects in aligarh city, India. J Water Resour Prot 3:522–530

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krewski D, Yokel RA, Nieboer E, Borchelt D, Cohen J, Harry J, … Rondeau V (2007) Human health risk assessment for aluminium, aluminium oxide, and aluminium hydroxide. J Toxicol Environ Health B 10:1–269. doi:10.1080/10937400701597766

  • Kross B (2002) Nitrate toxicity and drinking water standards—a review. J Prev Med 10:3–10

    Google Scholar 

  • LeChevallier MW, Evans TM, Seidler RJ (1981) Effect of turbidity on chlorination efficiency and bacterial persistence in drinking water. Appl Environ Microbiol 42(1):159–167

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu L et al (2012) Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: an updated systematic analysis for 2010 with time trends since. Lancet 379:2151–2161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons L (2014) Seven in 10 worldwide are satisfied with water quality. Gallup. World. http://www.gallup.com/poll/171989/seven-worldwide-satisfied-water-quality.aspx#1

  • Mosaferi M, Yunesian M, Dastgiri S, Mesdaghinia A, Esmailnasab N (2008) Prevalence of skin lesions and exposure to arsenic in drinking water in Iran. Total Environ 390:69–76

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prüss-Üstün A, Bos R, Gore F, Bartram J (2008) Safer water, better health: costs, benefits and sustainability of interventions to protect and promote health. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahman MM, Ng JC, Naidu R (2009) Chronic exposure of arsenic via drinking water and its adverse health impacts on humans Environ Geochem Hlth 31:189–200

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sachs JD (2001) Macroeconomics and health: investing in health for economic development. Report of the commission on macroeconomics and health. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Salem HM, Eweida EA, Farag A (2000) Heavy metals in drinking water and their environmental impact on human health. ICEHM 2000:542–556

  • Shuttleworth M (2009) Meta analysis. Explorable.com. https://explorable.com/meta-analysis. Accessed 15 May 2016

  • Smith AH, Steinmaus CM (2009) Health effects of arsenic and chromium in drinking water: recent human findings. Annu Rev Publ Health 30:107–122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNEP (2010) Final review of scientific information on cadmium. United Nations Environment Programme

  • UNICEF (2008) UNICEF handbook on water quality. United Nations Children’s Fund, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • UN-WWAP (2003) The world water development report 1: water for people, water for life. United Nations World Water Assessment Programme, France

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA (1998) Enhanced coagulation and enhanced precipitative softening guidance manual. Office of Water and Drinking Ground Water, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Vyas S, Kumaranayake L (2006) Constructing socio-economic status indices: how to use principal components analysis. Health Policy Plan 21:459–468

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2003) Benzene in drinking water: background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking water quality. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2005) Mercury in drinking-water. WHO/SDE/WSH/05.08/10. World Health Organization, Geneva

  • WHO (2006) Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 1st Addendum to the 3rd ed. Volume 1: Recommendations. World Health Organization, Geneva

  • WHO (2008) Guidelines for drinking water quality, vol 1. World Health Organisation, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2009) Global health risks: mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2011a) Cause-specific mortality: regional estimates for 2008. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2011b) Selenium in drinking water. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2012) Global costs and benefits of drinking-water supply and sanitation interventions to reach the MDG target and universal coverage. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO/UNICEF (2014) Progress on drinking water 2014 UPDATE and sanitation. WHO and UNICEF, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Wongsasuluk P, Chotpantarat S, Siriwong W, Robson M (2014) Heavy metal contamination and human health risk assessment in drinking water from shallow groundwater wells in an agricultural area in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Environ Geochem Health 36:169–182

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank (2016) Country and Lending Groups. http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups. Accessed 20 Sept 2016

  • Xie YF (2004) Disinfection byproducts in drinking water: formation, analysis and control. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. UN Environment-Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

    Takawira Gara, Li Fengting & Clifton Makate

  2. Department of Environmental Engineering, Chinhoyi University of Technology, P. Bag 7724, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe

    Innocent Nhapi

  3. Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Box MP167, Mt. Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe

    Webster Gumindoga

Authors
  1. Takawira Gara
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Li Fengting
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Innocent Nhapi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Clifton Makate
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Webster Gumindoga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Takawira Gara.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Gara, T., Fengting, L., Nhapi, I. et al. Health Safety of Drinking Water Supplied in Africa: A Closer Look Using Applicable Water-Quality Standards as a Measure. Expo Health 10, 117–128 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-017-0249-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-017-0249-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation