Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Optimization of Salivary Electrochemical Analysis and its Collection Protocol in Type II Diabetes

  • Original Research Article
  • Published:
Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In the last few decades, saliva due to its non-invasive nature has been highlighted as an important diagnostic biofluid and significant alteration in its composition has been reported with the progression of diabetes. We have investigated the best protocol for saliva collection, handling and processing to leverage its full potential for measuring salivary electrochemical parameters (SEPs) that serve as proxy indicators for fasting blood glucose levels (BGLs) in the body. SEPs such as pH, oxidation–reduction potential (ORP), conductivity and concentrations of Na+, K+ and Ca++ ions were examined in a total of 60 age and sex matched (healthy and with diabetes) volunteers over three days (study 1) and during five different intervals in a day (study 2) and were subjected to statistical analysis. Effect of different age groups were also considered in study 2. None of the SEPs showed significant day-to-day variability (p > 0.05) in an individual belonging to either group. The variation among individuals was, however, higher in the diabetes group. The average SEP values were also distinctly different from the healthy baseline in the saliva collected after overnight fasting (P < 0.05). These findings imply that consumption of meals alters the salivary secretion and limits the use of the saliva-based studies to fasting intervals, which stands best for the salivary analysis during the diseased condition. Overall, we conclude that the SEPs collection protocol should be fixed to overnight fasting with 15 min of prior gargling.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

‘Yes’.

References

  1. Madalli VB, Basavaraddi SM, Burde K, Horatti P. Saliva-A diagnostic tool. J Dental Med Sci. 2013;11(6):96–9.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Yavuzyilmaz E, Yumak Ö, Akdoǧanli T, Yamalik N, Özer N, Ersoy F, et al. The alterations of whole saliva constituents in patients with diabetes mellitus. Aust Dent J. 1996;41(3):193–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Malik S, Khadgawat R, Anand S, Gupta S. Non-invasive detection of fasting blood glucose level via electrochemical measurement of saliva. Springerplus. 2016;5(1):701.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Malik S, Parikh H, Shah N, Anand S, Gupta SJ. Non-invasive platform to estimate fasting blood glucose levels from salivary electrochemical parameters. Healthc Technol Lett. 2019;6(4):87–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Pedersen A, Sørensen C, Proctor G, Carpenter G. Ekström JJJoor. Salivary Secret Health Dis. 2018;45(9):730–46.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Hegde MN, Tahiliani D, Shetty SS, Devadiga D. Salivary electrolyte as a biomarker in caries active type II diabetes-A comparative study. J Health Allied Sci. 2014;4(3):85.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Johnston W. Salivary electrolytes in fibrocystic disease of the pancreas. Archiv Dis Childhood. 1956;31(160):477.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Lasisi TJ, Raji YR, Salako B. Salivary electrolytes, total protein and immunoglobulin a in patients with chronic kidney disease: a case control study. Niger J Physiol Sci. 2018;33(2):177–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Adlin EV, Marks AD, Channick BJJC, Theory EHPA. Practice The salivary sodium/potassium ratio in hypertension: relation to race and plasma renin activity. Clin Exp Hypertens Part A: Theor Pract. 1982;4(9–10):1869–80.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Chicharro JL, Lucía A, Pérez M, Vaquero AF. Saliva composition and exercise. Sports Med. 1998;26(1):17–27.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Sevón L, Laine MA, Karjalainen S, Doroguinskaia A, Helenius H, Kiss E, et al. Effect of age on flow-rate, protein and electrolyte composition of stimulated whole saliva in healthy, non-smoking women. Open Dentist. 2008;2:89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. McGrady K, Bessman S, editors. The detection of mucoviscidosis by the determination of saliva chloride. AMA American journal of Diseases of Children; 1955: AMER MEDICAL ASSOC 515 N STATE ST, CHICAGO, IL 60610

  13. HOLMES JH. Changes in salivary flow produced by changes in fluid and electrolyte balance. Salivary glands and their secretions: Elsevier; 1964. p. 177–95

  14. Wong DT. Salivary diagnostics amazing as it might seem, doctors can detect and monitor diseases using molecules found in a sample of spit. Am Sci. 2008;96(1):37–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Lenander-Lumikari M, Johansson I, Vilja P, Samaranayake L. Newer saliva collection methods and saliva composition: a study of two Salivette® kits. Oral Dis. 1995;1(2):86–91.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Hardt M, Witkowska HE, Webb S, Thomas LR, Dixon SE, Hall SC, et al. Assessing the effects of diurnal variation on the composition of human parotid saliva: quantitative analysis of native peptides using iTRAQ reagents. Anal Chem. 2005;77(15):4947–54.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Kudielka BM, Broderick JE, Kirschbaum C. Compliance with saliva sampling protocols: electronic monitoring reveals invalid cortisol daytime profiles in noncompliant subjects. Psychosom Med. 2003;65(2):313–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Jou Y-J, Lin C-D, Lai C-H, Chen C-H, Kao J-Y, Chen S-Y, et al. Proteomic identification of salivary transferrin as a biomarker for early detection of oral cancer. Anal Chim Acta. 2010;681(1):41–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Wang D, Du X, Zheng W. Alteration of saliva and serum concentrations of manganese, copper, zinc, cadmium and lead among career welders. Toxicol Lett. 2008;176(1):40–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Quirynen M, Zhao H, Avontroodt P, Soers C, Pauwels M, Coucke W, et al. A salivary incubation test for evaluation of oral malodor: a pilot study. J Periodontol. 2003;74(7):937–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Wong DT. Salivary diagnostics: amazing as it might seem, doctors can detect and monitor diseases using molecules found in a sample of spit. Am Sci. 2008;96(1):37–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Dawes C. Effects of diet on salivary secretion and composition. J Dent Res. 1970;49(6):1263–72.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Malik S, Gupta S, Parikh H, Anand S, editors. Gargling affect on salivary electrochemical parameters to predict blood glucose. 2016 International Conference on Computational Techniques in Information and Communication Technologies (ICCTICT); 2016: IEEE

  24. Care ADAJD. Report of the expert committee on the diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. 2003;26(suppl 1):s5-s20

  25. Seethalakshmi C, Reddy RJ, Asifa N, Prabhu SJJ. Correlation of salivary pH incidence of dental caries and periodontal status in diabetes mellitus patients: a cross-sectional study. J Clin Diagnost Res. 2016;10(3):ZC12.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Grover J, Vats V, Rathi S. Anti-hyperglycemic effect of Eugenia jambolana and Tinospora cordifolia in experimental diabetes and their effects on key metabolic enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;73(3):461–70.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Holmes JH, Sreebny L, Meyer J. Changes in salivary flow produced by changes in fluid and electrolyte balance. Salivary Glands. 1964;7:177–94.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Ben-Aryeh H, Cohen M, Kanter Y, Szargel R, Laufer D. Salivary composition in diabetic patients. J Diabet Complicat. 1988;2(2):96–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Mata AD, Marques D, Rocha S, Francisco H, Santos C, Mesquita MF, et al. Effects of diabetes mellitus on salivary secretion and its composition in the human. Mol Cell Biochem. 2004;261(1):137–42.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Carda C, Mosquera-Lloreda N, Salom L, Gomez de Ferraris M, Peydró A. Structural and functional salivary disorders in type 2 diabetic patients. Medicina Oral Patologia Oral y Cirugia Bucal. 2006;11(4):209.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Panchbhai AS, Degwekar SS, Bhowte RR. Estimation of salivary glucose, salivary amylase, salivary total protein and salivary flow rate in diabetics in India. J Oral Sci. 2010;52(3):359–68.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Watanabe S, Dawes C. The effects of different foods and concentrations of citric acid on the flow rate of whole saliva in man. Arch Oral Biol. 1988;33(1):1–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to all the staff members and volunteers at AIIMS for their active cooperation during the sample collection process. Author would also like to thank Prof. Shalini Gupta, Associate professor, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi for her valuable guidance through out the experiments.Author would also like to acknowledge the support of Dr. Rajesh Khadgawat, Professor, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi to obtain ethical approval.

Funding

The author did not receive any funding from any organization for the submitted work.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, 110016, India

    Sarul Malik

  2. Department of Instrumentation, Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Sciences for Women, University of Delhi, New Delhi, 110096, India

    Sarul Malik

Authors
  1. Sarul Malik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

SM conceptualized the idea to perform this study, performed all the experiments and wrote the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sarul Malik.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

Author report no conflicts of interest.

Ethical Approval

IEC/NP-278/01–08-2014, RP-29/2014.

Consent to Participate

All subjects were asked to give their informed consent to participate in the study.

Consent for Publications

All subjects were asked to give their informed consent to publish results from this study.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Malik, S. Optimization of Salivary Electrochemical Analysis and its Collection Protocol in Type II Diabetes. Ind J Clin Biochem 37, 311–318 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12291-021-00996-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12291-021-00996-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation