Abstract
This article has two aims: First, it examines the effect of a democratic and non-Western regional hegemon on democratization processes in neighboring countries, applied to the case of South Africa and its influence on democratization in Lesotho. Second, it applies Levitsky and Way’s framework to the case of Lesotho. The results of the analysis attenuate optimism about the potential of democratic non-Western regional hegemons to replace missing Western linkage and induce full democratization in neighboring countries. The analysis shows there is high linkage and leverage between South Africa and Lesotho according to Levitsky and Way’s measurement. Yet the 2012 turnover through elections in Lesotho turns out to be a sign of unstable competitive authoritarianism, rather than an indication of an evolution towards full democratization, i.e. it is the result of high Western and South African leverage, low Western linkage, and low organizational power of the incumbent party. A qualitative assessment of linkage between South Africa and Lesotho shows that linkage between the two countries is not as dense as suggested by the measurement according to Levitsky and Way’s criteria. This calls into question whether their measurement criteria for linkage actually reflect their own hypothesized role of linkage.
Zusammenfassung
Dieser Artikel hat zwei Ziele: Erstens untersucht er den Effekt eines demokratischen und nicht-westlichen Hegemons auf Demokratisierungsprozesse in Nachbarsländern, aufgezeigt am südafrikanischen Einfluss auf die Demokratisierung in Lesotho. Zweitens wendet er Levitsky und Ways Theorie im Fall Lesothos an. Die Resultate der Analyse dämpfen allzu starken Optimismus bezüglich des Potentials demokratischer, nicht-westlicher regionaler Hegemone, fehlende Verbindungen mit dem Westen wettzumachen und vollständige Demokratisierung in Nachbarsländern herbeizuführen. Die Analyse zeigt, dass gemäß Levitsky und Ways Messmethode starke Verbindungen zwischen der Regionalmacht Südafrika und dem kleinen Lesotho bestehen. Jedoch signalisiert der durch die Wahlen im Jahr 2012 herbeigeführte Machtwechsel in Lesotho instabilen kompetitiven Autoritarismus und nicht den Endpunkt einer Entwicklung hin zur vollständigen Demokratie. Der Machtwechsel ist folglich ein Produkt westlichen und südafrikanischen Drucks, geringer Verbindungen mit dem Westen und schwacher organisatorischer Kapazität der regierenden Partei. Eine qualitative Analyse der Verbindungen zwischen Südafrika und Lesotho zeigt, dass die Verbindungen zwischen den beiden Ländern nicht so dicht sind wie die Messung nach Levitsky und Ways Kriterien vermuten lassen würde. Dies wirft die Frage auf, ob Levitsky und Ways Messkriterien tatsächlich die von ihnen postulierte Rolle von Verbindungen zwischen kompetitiv-autoritären Staaten und demokratischen Hegemonen abzubilden vermögen.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Notes
Lesotho is completely surrounded by South Africa. Lesotho has a population of 2 Mio. people, comparable to Namibia and Botswana in the region. Its area size is comparable to that of Belgium. The people of Lesotho, pronounced Lesutu, are called Basotho (Basutu). The singular is Mosotho (Mosutu).
In 2010, I conducted interviews in Lesotho with ten high-ranking parliamentarians, ministers and party representatives of the three most important parties (both urban and rural backgrounds): Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD) (3 interviewees), All Basotho Convention (ABC) (3), and Basotho National Party (BNP) (2), as well as two minor parties, National Independent Party (NIP) (1) and Lesotho Worker’s Party (LWP) (1). Furthermore, the analysis relies on expert interviews with two representatives from local NGOs, a senior local journalist, and a representative of the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC).
Lesotho belongs to the lowest quartile in Sub-Saharan Africa and is the smallest economy in the SADC (World Bank 2009).
Interview conducted by the author in Maseru, Lesotho, July 2010.
Interview with high-ranking politician of the ABC in Maseru, Lesotho, July 2010 (cf. Elklit 2008, p. 14).
According to a representative of the IEC (interview in Maseru, Lesotho, July 2010).
As with Lesotho, Botswana is a case of competitive and moderate authoritarianism. Levitsky and Way consider Namibia a “borderline case[…] [between democracy and competitive authoritarianism] that arguably could be included in the sample” of competitive authoritarian regimes, but is “insufficiently authoritarian.” Mozambique and Zimbabwe are clear-cut cases of competitive authoritarianism, and Swaziland’s monarchy is fully authoritarian (Levitsky and Way 2010, pp. 33–34, 238–256).
Information in this section is based on personal observation during field research and interviews with political experts in Maseru, Lesotho, in July 2010.
References
afrol News. 2013. Lesotho will be hard-hit by declining SACU revenues. http://www.afrol.com/articles/34242. Accessed 15 Oct 13.
Alden, Chris, and Garth le Pere. 2004. South Africa’s Post-Apartheid Foreign Policy: From Reconciliation to Revival? Adelphi Paper 362. Oxford: Oxford University Press and International Institute for Strategic Studies.
allAfrica. 2012a. Southern Africa Report. Lesotho: Opposition Trounces Mosisili. http://allafrica.com/stories/201206010950.html. Accessed 30 Sept 13.
allAfrica. 2012b. Southern Africa Report. Lesotho: Jumping Before He’s Pushed. http://allafrica.com/stories/201202101099.html. Accessed 30 Sept 13.
Bardill, John E., and James H. Cobbe. 1985. Lesotho. Dilemmas of dependence in Southern Africa. Boulder: Westview.
Boix, Charles. 2011. Democracy, development, and the international system. American Political Science Review 105 (4): 809–828.
Booth, Alan R. 2000. Historical dictionary of Swaziland. 2nd ed. Lanham: Scarecrow.
Brownlee, Jason. 2012. Democracy prevention. The politics of the U.S.-Egyptian Alliance. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cobbe, Jim. 2012. Country Profiles. Lesotho: From Labor Reserve to Depopulating Periphery? Migration Information Source. http://www.migrationinformation.org/feature/display.cfm?ID=891. Accessed 30 Sept 13.
Coplan, David B., and Tim Quinlan. 1997. A chief by the people: Nation versus State in Lesotho. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 67 (1): 27–60.
EISA. 2013. EISA Election Observer Mission Report. Lesotho. Parliamentary Elections 26 May 2012. Johannesburg: EISA.
Elklit, Jorgen. 2002. Lesotho 2002: Africa’s first MMP elections. Journal of African Elections 1 (2): 1–9.
Elklit, Jorgen. 2008. The 2007 general election in Lesotho: Abuse of the MMP System? Journal of African Elections 7 (1): 10–19.
Fischer Weltalmanach. 2003. Der Fischer Weltalmanach 2003. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer.
Freedom House. 1993–2000. Freedom House. Freedom In The World. New York: Freedom House.
Freedom House. 1999–2013. Freedom House. Freedom In The World. Reports. http://www.freedomhouse.org/report-types/freedom-world. Accessed 31 Jan 14.
Freedom House. 2013a. Freedom House. Data. http://www.freedomhouse.org/. Accessed 30 Sep 13.
Freedom House. 2013b. Freedom House. Freedom of the Press. South Africa. http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2013/south-africa. Accessed 30 Sep 13.
Freeman, Linda. 2005. South Africa’s Zimbabwe Policy: Unravelling the contradictions. Journal of Contemporary African Studies 23 (2): 147–172.
Go Lesotho. 2014. Consulates and Embassies in Lesotho. Embassies/High Commissions. Go Lesotho. http://www.golesotho.co.za/Embassies.html. Accessed 10 Juli 14.
Graham, Matthew. 2012. Foreign Policy in Transition: The ANC’s Search for a Foreign Policy Direction during South Africa’s Transition, 1990–1994. The Round Table 101(5): 405–423.
Graham, Victoria. 2006. How Firm the Handshake? South Africa’s Use of Quiet Diplomacy in Zimbabwe from 1999 to 2006. African Security Review 15 (4): 114–127.
Kabemba, Claude. 2004. From Military Rule to Multiparty Democracy: Political Reforms and Challenges in Lesotho. EISA Research Report. (2).
Langa, P. 1998. Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Conduct and Results of the Lesotho General Elections Held in May 1998. Mimeo.
Levitsky, Steven, and Lucan A. Way. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Likoti, Fako. 2008. The Electoral Process and the 2007 Snap Elections in Lesotho. Review of Southern African Studies 12 (1–2): 150–183.
Likoti, Fako. 2009. The 2007 general election in Lesotho: The application and the challenges of the electoral system. African Studies Quarterly 10 (4): 57–69.
Makthetha, Mookho. 2012. South African Media Coverage of the May 2012 election in Lesotho. Consultancy Africa Intelligence. http://www.consultancyafrica.com/. Accessed 30 Sept 13.
Manoeli, Sebabatso. 2012. Lesotho after AGOA. From textile booms to sustainable development. The Brenthurst Foundation. Discussion Paper 6/2012.
Matlosa, Khabele. 1997. Vulnerability and Viability of Small States in Southern Africa in a Post-Apartheid Era: Is South Africa still “Big Brother? Journal of African Studies 11 (2): 117–131.
Matlosa, Khabele. 1998. Democracy and Conflict in Post-Apartheid Southern Africa: Dilemmas of Social Change in Small States. International Affairs 74 (2): 319–337.
Namibweb. 2014. Diplomatic missions in Windhoek. http://www.namibweb.com/embassies.html. Accessed 10 Juli 14.
Ntaote, Billy. 2013. Thabane orders Moleleki’s arrest. Public Eye. http://publiceye.co.ls/?p=1691. Accessed 31 Jan 14.
Nunley, Albert C. 2013. African Elections Database. http://africanelections.tripod.com/. Accessed 30 Sept 13.
OECD. 2011. Aid Effectiveness 2011: Progress in Implementing the Paris Declaration — Volume II Country Chapters. Lesotho. http://www.oecd.org/development/effectiveness/Lesothopdf. Accessed 30.06.14.
Prys, Miriam. 2009. Regional Hegemon or Regional Bystander: South Africa’s Zimbabwe Policy 2000–2005. Politikon: South African Journal of Political Studies 36 (2): 193–218.
Public Eye. 2013. Some don’t even know why they were made Ministers: Tšehlana. 18.01.13. http://publiceye.co.ls/?p=1063. Accessed 30 Sept 13.
QoG. 2013. The quality of government dataset. University of Gothenburg: The QOG Institute.
Republic of Botswana. 2014. Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation. Diplomatic Missions. http://www.mofaic.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=74&Itemid=74. Accessed 10 Juli 14.
Rosenberg, Scott, Richard F. Weisfelder, and Michelle Frisbie-Fulton. 2004. Historical dictionary of Lesotho. Lanham: Scarecrow.
Southall, Roger. 1994. The 1993 Lesotho Election. Review of African Political Economy 21 (59): 110–118.
Southall, Roger. 2003. An unlikely success: South Africa and Lesotho’s election of 2002. The Journal of Modern African Studies 41 (2): 269–296.
Southall, Roger. 2013. Liberation movements in power. Party and state in Southern Africa. Scottsville: University of KwaZulu-Natal.
Southall, Roger, and Roddy Fox. 1999. Lesotho’s general election of 1998: Rigged or de riguer? The Journal of Modern African Studies 37 (4): 669–696.
Sunday Express. 2012. Thabane pledges to fight corruption. 09.06.12. http://sundayexpress.co.ls/?p=6815. Accessed 30 Sept 13.
Tefo, Tefo. 2013. MPs Accused of Fraud. Public Eye. http://publiceye.co.ls/?p=2536. Accessed 30 Sept 13.
US Department of State. 2000. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. Lesotho. 1999. http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/1999/253.htm. Accessed 30 Sept 13.
US Department of State. 2008. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. Lesotho. 2007. http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100488.htm. Accessed 30 Sept 13.
van Aardt, M. 1996. A foreign policy to die for: South Africa’s response to the Nigerian Crisis. Africa Insight 26 (2): 107–119.
van der Vleuten, Anna, and Andrea Ribeiro Hoffmann. 2010. Explaining the enforcement of democracy by regional organizations: Comparing EU, Mercosur and SADC. Journal of Common Market Studies 48 (3): 737–758.
Wahman, Michael. 2014. Democratization and electoral turnovers in sub-saharan africa and beyond. Democratization 21 (2): 220–243.
Wood, Geoffrey, Pauline Dibben, and Klerck Gilton. 2013. The limits of transnational solidarity: The Congress of South African Trade Unions and the Swaziland and Zimbabwean Crises. Labor History 54 (5): 527–539.
World Bank. 2009. Africa development indicators: From World Bank Africa Database. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Youngs, Richard. 2010. Introduction: Idealism at Bay. In The European Union and Democracy Promotion, ed. Richard Youngs, 1–15. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
The Foundation for Scientific Research at the University of Zurich enabled field studies in Lesotho and the National University of Lesotho provided helpful assistance. I thank Oscar Mwangi, Victor Shale, Holo ‘Nyane, Sofonea Shale and Ma Tsepang for their help during filed studies, Manuel Mühlebach and Christian Hutter for assistance, and Dieter Ruloff for general support. For their excellent reviews and comments on earlier versions of this manuscript I thank the editors of this special issue—Matthijs Bogaards and Sebastian Elischer—, the participants of the related workshop in Lüneburg, as well as Simon Bornschier and Fabio Wasserfallen. I also thank the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions. All remaining errors are my own.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
van Eerd, J. The limits of democratization through a regional hegemon: South African linkage and leverage and the skewed playing field in Lesotho party competition. Z Vgl Polit Wiss 10 (Suppl 1), 137–154 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12286-016-0275-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12286-016-0275-z