Abstract
The trace element composition of water intended for human consumption plays an important role for public health. Water is a significant source of potentially toxic and essential elements; it can provide the body by both direct recruitment and/or influencing the element concentration in agriculture, livestock products and food industry. The present study examines the concentrations of a great number of elements in the drinking waters distributed in the territory of Rome, whose water supply mainly comes from spring waters. 20 samples drawn from municipal potable facilities in Rome were analyzed by Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis. The neutron irradiations were performed in the pneumatic channel and in the rotating rack of ENEA’s Triga Mark II reactor at 1.3 × 1013 and 2.6 × 1012 n cm−2 s−1, respectively. In total, 38 elements were determined in each sample. The results evidence that all the studied elements for all the aqueducts resulted well below the limits posed by the regulations on water for human consumption. Besides, considering the elements not regulated, the monitored waters resulted safe from a toxicological point of view, and adequate from nutritional aims. In addition, it was also evidenced that the elemental composition resulted quite similar to that of uncontaminated natural water. Finally, a statistical approach evidences that the elemental behavior of the monitored waters is mainly determined by geochemical factors.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahmad S, Mannan A, Qureshi IH, Khan SM, Ahmad I (1988) Iodine determination in water samples from endemic goitrous areas using NAA. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 120:89–95
Al-Saleh I, Al-Doush I (1998) Survey of trace elements in household and bottled drinking water samples collected in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Sci Total Environ 216:181–192
Avino P, Rosada A (2014) Mediterranean and near east obsidian reference samples to establish artefacts provenance. Herit Sci 2:16
Avino P, Capannesi G, Rosada A (2006) Characterization and distribution of mineral content in fine and coarse airborne particle fractions by neutron activation analysis. Toxicol Environ Chem 88:633–647
Avino P, Capannesi G, Rosada A (2008) Heavy metal determination in atmospheric particulate matter by instrumental neutron activation analysis. Microchem J 88:97–106
Avino P, Capannesi G, Diaco L, Rosada A (2010) Multivariate analysis applied to trace and ultra-trace elements in Italian potable waters determined by INAA. Curr Anal Chem 6:26–36
Avino P, Capannesi G, Rosada A (2011a) Ultra-trace nutritional and toxicological elements in Rome and Florence drinking waters determined by instrumental neutron activation analysis. Microchem J 97:144–153
Avino P, Capannesi G, Manigrasso M, Sabbioni E, Rosada A (2011b) Element assessment in whole blood, serum and urine of three Italian healthy sub-populations by INAA. Microchem J 99:548–555
Avino P, Santoro E, Sarto F, Violante V, Rosada A (2011c) Neutron activation analysis for investigating purity grade of copper, nickel and palladium thin films used in cold fusion experiments. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 290:427–436
Avino P, Capannesi G, Rosada A, Manigrasso M, Sabbioni E (2013a) Multivariate analysis applied to some elements in human fluids and whole bloods of hemodialysis patients determined by INAA. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 298:1957–1968
Avino P, Capannesi G, Renzi L, Rosada A (2013b) Instrumental neutron activation analysis and statistical approach for determining baseline values of essential and toxic elements in hairs of high school students. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 92:206–214
Avino P, Capannesi G, Rosada A (2014) Source identification of inorganic airborne particle fraction (PM10) at ultratrace levels by means of INAA short irradiation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:4527–4538
Avino P, Manigrasso M, Rosada A, Dodaro A (2015a) Measurement of organic and elemental carbon in downtown Rome and background area: physical behavior and chemical speciation. Environ Sci Process Impacts 17:300–315
Avino P, Capannesi G, Rosada A, Manigrasso M (2015b) Classification of an area as metallogenic province: environmental importance and problems. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 303:1967–1982
Bardi G, Coppa G, Pediconi L (1984) Acque e acquedotti a Roma 1870–1984. Quasar ed., Rome (in Italian)
Biego GH, Joyeux M, Hartemann P, Debry G (1998) Daily intake of essential minerals and metallic micropollutants from foods in France. Sci Total Environ 217:27–36
Blasi P, Capannesi G, Cecchi A, Lucarelli F, Sedda FA (1990) An application of INAA and PIXE on the analysis of nutritional and toxicological elements in samples of drinkable water. Biol Trace Element Res 26:363–375
Bond AM, Wallace GG (1983) Automated determination of nickel and copper by liquid chromatography with electrochemical and spectrophotometric detection. Anal Chem 51:718–723
Capannesi G, Diaco L, Rosada A, Avino P (2008) Investigation of trace and ultra-trace elements of nutritional and toxicological significance in Italian potable waters by INAA. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 278:353–357
Capannesi G, Rosada A, Avino P (2009) Elemental characterization of impurities at trace and ultra-trace levels in metallurgical lead samples by INAA. Microchem J 93:188–194
Capannesi G, Rosada A, Avino P (2010a) Radiochemical separation and anti-compton analysis of Ni, Sn, Te and Zn in lead standard reference materials at ultra-trace levels. Curr Anal Chem 6:217–222
Capannesi G, Vicini C, Rosada A, Avino P (2010b) Characterization of a suspect nuclear fuel rod in a case of illegal international traffic of fissile material. Forensic Sci Int 199:e15–e21
Capannesi G, Rosada A, Manigrasso M, Avino P (2011) Rare earth elements, thorium and uranium in ores of the North-Latium (Italy). J Radioanal Nucl Chem 291:163–168
Capannesi G, Rosada A, Manigrasso M, Avino P (2012) Rare earth elements, thorium and uranium in ores of the North-Latium (Italy). J Radioanal Nucl Chem 291:163–168
Chakraborti D, Adams F, Van Mol W, Irgolic KJ (1987) Determination of trace metals in natural waters at nanogram per liter levels by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry after extraction with sodium diethyldithiocarbamate. Anal Chim Acta 196:23–31
Chen J (2012) An original discovery: selenium deficiency and Keshan disease (an endemic heart disease). Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 21:320–326
Collivignarelli C, Sorlini S, Prandini F (2007) Drinking quality monitoring and treatment in some rural villages in the south of Kolkata: focus on arsenic. In: Ersöz M, Schönerklee M (eds) Proceedings of cost action 637 international conference on metals related substances in drinking water (METEAU), pp 159–168
Cuomo F, Mosca M, Murgia S, Avino P, Ceglie A, Lopez F (2013) Evidence for the role of hydrophobic forces on the interactions of nucleotide-monophosphates with cationic liposomes. J Colloid Interface Sci 410:146–151
Currie LA (1968) Limits for qualitative detection and quantitative determination. Application to radiochemistry. Anal Chem 40:586–593
Di Palo L, Focaccia G, Lo Prato E, Marsili F, Paoletti A, Perni M, Prosperi D, Sciuti S, Verri A (1967) Il reattore RC-1 ad 1 MW del Centro Studi Nucleari della Casaccia. Energ Nucl 14:659–664 (in Italian)
Djordjevic Z, Mugosa B, Bajic B, Milosevic GS (2013) Iodine status of school children from a previously endemic goitrous area in Montenegro. Health Med 7:2487
Erdtmann G, Soyka W (1979) The γ-ray lines of the radionuclides. Verlag Chemie, Weinheim
Escofier B, Pagès J (1988) Analyses factorielles multiples. Dunod, Paris
Groenendijk M, van de Wetering S (2007) Finding a solution to a nickel problem. In: Ersöz M, Schönerklee M (eds) Proceedings of cost action 637 international conference on metals related substances in drinking water (METEAU), pp 235–236
Hohnson RA, Wichern DW (2002) Applied multivariate statistical analysis. Prentice-Hill, Upper Saddle River
Jung M, Heiss G (2007) Geogenic and non-geogenic metals in Austrian tap water. In: Ersöz M, Schönerklee M (eds) Proceedings of cost action 637 international conference on metals related substances in drinking water (METEAU), pp 31–51
Katsoyiannis IA, Katsoyiannis AA (2006) Arsenic and other metal contamination of groundwaters in the industrial area of Thessaloniki, Northern Greece. Environ Monit Assess 123:393–406
Legislative Decree 2 febbraio (2001) n. 31. Attuazione della direttiva 98/83/CE relativa alla qualità delle acque destinate al consumo umano (G.U. n. 52, 3 marzo 2001, Supplemento Ordinario)
Li JY, Ren SX, Cheng DZ (1982) A study of selenium associated with the Kashin–Beck disease in different environments in Shaanxi. Acta Sci Circumst 2:1–16
Meneghin M (1999) Fabbisogno, consumi, portate e perdite nella pratica di esercizio delle reti di distribuzione d’acqua potabile a sollevamento meccanico. Acqua 4. http://www.altratecnica.it/indicemiscellaneanuova/indiceacquedotti/fabbisogno.html. Accessed April 2015
Němcová V, Vraspír P, Kantorová J (2007) Case study—elements in tap water from a private house with copper plumbing in Ostrava. In: Ersöz M, Schönerklee M (eds) Proceedings of cost action 637 international conference on metals related substances in drinking water (METEAU), pp 219–223
Pavlov VA, Petrukhin VA, Onufriev VG, Romanov VV (1978) Trace elements, radiocarbon and tritium in groundwaters of the Northwestern part of the Moscow Artesian Basin. Water Res 5:840–845
Pellegrini MG, Cocchioni M, Riccioni R, Tarantini F (1982) Macro ed oligoelementi nell’apporto idrico e alimentare. Ig Mod 76:483–508 (in Italian)
Piotti A, Ronco G (2006). http://www.ato2roma.it/DOCUMENTI/articoli/articolo%20acqua_PIOTTI_RONCO.pdf. Accessed April 2015
Protano C, Zinnà L, Giampaoli S, Romano Spica V, Chiavarini S, Vitali M (2014) Heavy metal pollution and potential ecological risks in rivers: a case study from southern Italy. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 92:75–80
Rosborg I (2007) Mineral element contents in drinking water—aspects on quality and potential links to human health. In: Ersöz M, Schönerklee M (eds) Proceedings of cost action 637 international conference on metals related substances in drinking water (METEAU), pp 227–234
Rosborg I, Nihlgård B, Gerhardsson L (2003) Inorganic constituents of well water in on acid and one alkaline area of south Sweden. Water Air Soil Poll 142:261–277
Rosborg I, Nihlgård B, Gerhardsson L, Sverdrup H (2006) Concentrations of inorganic elements in 20 municipal waters in Sweden before and after treatment—links to human health. Environ Geochem Health 28:215–229
Rossi F, Guglielmelli A, Rocchi F (2015) Impact of a security event at a TRIGA reactor. Ann Nucl Energy 76:125–136
Salbu B, Steinnes E, Pappas AC (1975) Multielement neutron activation analysis of fresh water using Ge(Li) gamma spectrometry. Anal Chem 47:1011–1016
Saleh NS (1982) Use of PIXE analysis to determine trace metals in drinking water in Jordan. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 74:257–262
Sansoni B, Brunner W, Wolff G, Ruppert H, Dittrich R (1988) Comparative instrumental multi-element analysis I: comparison of ICP source mass spectrometry with ICP atomic emission spectrometry, ICP atomic fluorescence spectrometry and atomic absorption spectrometry for the analysis of natural waters from a granite region. Fresenius J Anal Chem 331:154–169
Sarda AK, Gupta A, Jain PK, Prasad S (1997) Management options for solitary thyroid nodules in an endemic goitrous area. Postgrad Med J 73:560–564
Seccaroni C, Volante N, Rosada A, Ambrosone L, Bufalo G, Avino P (2008) Identification of provenance of obsidian samples analyzing elemental composition by INAA. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 278:277–282
Sharma HK, Mittal VK, Sahota HS (1989) Activation and chemical analysis of drinking waters. Nucl Geophys 3:141–145
Shkinev VM, Gomolitskii VN, Spivakov BY, Geckeler KE, Bayer E (1989) Determination of trace heavy metals in waters by atomic-absorption spectrometry after preconcentration by liquid-phase polymer-based retention. Talanta 36:861–863
Tamasi G, Cini R (2004) Heavy metals in drinking waters from Mount Amiata (Tuscany, Italy). Possible risks from arsenic for public health in the Province of Siena. Sci Total Environ 327:41–51
Venditti F, Cuomo F, Ceglie A, Avino P, Russo MV, Lopez F (2015) Visible light caffeic acid degradation by carbon-doped titanium dioxide. Langmuir 31:3627–3634
Veschetti E, Achene L, Ferretti E, Lucentini L, Ottavini M (2007) Metal migration from Italian drinking-water distribution systems. In: Ersöz M, Schönerklee M (eds) Proceedings of cost action 637 international conference on metals related substances in drinking water (METEAU), pp 26–30
WHO (2011) Selenium in drinking-water. Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/selenium.pdf. Accessed May 2015
Zmijewska W, Polkowska-Motrenko H, Stokowska H (1987) Neutron activation analysis of water and waste. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 116:243–252
Acknowledgments
This research was performed under the grant INAIL/P20L01.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Avino, P., Capannesi, G., Rosada, A. et al. The water supply of Rome: an “almost” unique case. Rend. Fis. Acc. Lincei 27, 67–81 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-015-0455-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-015-0455-9