Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Disability Diagnoses: Seven Sins of Clinicians

  • Published:
Psychological Injury and Law Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Research has increasingly demonstrated that clinicians are making disability diagnoses in young adults using flexible and expansive diagnostic criteria, or in some cases ignoring research-informed criteria all together. Commonly exhibited behaviors long considered normal as well as average achievement are now being characterized as disabilities. These practices create an issue of fairness, in that disability diagnoses allow access to academic accommodations that provide significant competitive advantage as well as access to substantial government-funded subsidies and benefits. This paper reviews the most common thinking and reasoning errors encountered by clinicians reviewing disability documentation submitted by adults requesting academic accommodations in educational settings or on high-stakes examinations. Possible reasons why clinicians commit these errors are explored, including the idea that concept creep and critical disability theory have altered and expanded clinicians’ views regarding what is considered a disability and also the definition of disability itself. The potential ramifications of such diagnostic errors are explored, leading to the conclusion that trust in the diagnostic process and the integrity of the professionals charged with making these decisions will erode if such practices continue, with psychology ultimately being removed from the decision-making process in accommodation decisions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.

Notes

  1. The first author is licensed in both School and Neuropsychology in Canada, having practiced for almost 30 years. For the past 18 years, she has run a government-funded disability assessment center based at a large university. The second author has served as a diagnostician in private practice and in a university setting where he has completed over 4,500 evaluations of young children, adolescents, and adults.

References

  • Aaron, P. G. (1997). The impending demise of the discrepancy formula. Review of Educational Research, 67, 461–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Algozzine, B., Ysseldyke, J., & Shinn, M. (1982). Identifying children with learning disabilities: When is a discrepancy severe? Journal of School Psychology, 20(4), 299–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act of 2008. (2008). Pub. L. No. 110–325, 42 USCA § 12101 et seq.

  • American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law. (2005). Ethics guidelines for the practice of forensic psychiatry (adopted May 1987; revised October 1989, 1991, 1995, and 2005). Author.

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed). Author.

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed). Author.

  • American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. Author.

  • Beal, A. L., Holdnack, J. A., Saklofske, D. H., & Weiss, L. G. (2016). Practical considerations in WISC-V interpretation and intervention. In L. G. Weiss, D. H. Saklofske, J. A. Holdnack, & A. Prifitera (Eds.), WISC-V assessment and interpretation: Scientist-practitioner perspectives (pp. 66–93). Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benson, N., Floyd, R., Kranzler, J., Eckert, T., & Fefer, S. (2018). February). Presented at the meeting of the National Association of School Psychologists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berendzen, J. (Fall, 2017). Max Horkheimer. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/horkheimer/

  • Binder, L., Iverson, G., & Brooks, B. (2009). To err is human: “Abnormal” neuropsychological scores and variability are common in healthy adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24(1), 31–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braaten, E., & Willoughby, B. (2014). Bright kids who can’t keep up: Help your child overcome slow processing speed and succeed in a fast-paced world. Guilford.

  • Brooks, B., Holdnack, J., & Iverson, G. (2011). Advanced clinical interpretation of the WAIS-IV and WMS-IV: Prevalence of low scores varies by level of intelligence and years of education. Assessment, 18(2), 156–167.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, B., Iverson, G., Sherman, E., & Holdnack, J. (2009). Healthy children and adolescents obtain some low scores across a battery of memory tests. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 15(4), 613.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J., Fishco, V., & Hanna, G. (1993). Nelson–Denny Reading Test: Manual for scoring and interpretation, forms G & H. Riverside.

  • Burns, P., Rohrich, R., & Chung, K. (2011). The levels of evidence and their role in evidence-based medicine. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 128(1), 305–310. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0b013e318219c171

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cavalli, J., & Cservenka, A. (2020). Chronic marijuana use, inhibitory control, and processing speed in young adult college students. Cannabis, 3(1), 19–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cressman, M., & Liljequist, L. (2014). The effect of grade norms in college students: Using the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47(3), 271–278.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crumlish, N., & Kelly, B. (2009). How psychiatrists think. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 15(1), 72–79. https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.bp.107.005298

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dadani, S. (2019). The politics of standardized testing in Ontario: Critically assessing the impact on learners, teachers, and administrators. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto]. Tspace Repository. https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/97346/1/Dadani_Sharmin_201911_EdD_thesis.pdf

  • Devlin, R., & Pothier, D. (2006). Introduction: Toward a critical theory of dis-citizenship. In D. Pothier & R. Devlin (Eds.), Critical disability theory: Essays in philosophy, politics, policy, and law. UBC Press.

  • Eide, B., & Eide, F. (2005). Stealth dyslexia. Twice Exceptional Newsletter, 13, 1–18, 19. https://2eresource.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/2e_Newsletter_Issue_13-1.pdf

  • Escobar, N., & Ahmed, A. (2019). 9 revealing moments from the college-admissions indictment. The Atlantic. March 13, 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2019/03/college-admissions-scandal-9-revealing-moments/584803/

  • Epstein, D. (2017). When evidence says no, but the doctor says yes. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2017/02/when-evidence-says-no-but-doctors-say-yes/517368/

  • Equal Employment Opportunities Commission. (2011). Regulations to implement the equal employment provisions of the Americans With Disabilities Act, as amended: A Rule by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission on 03/25/2011. 76 FR 16977.

  • Fawcett, A., & Nicolson, R. (1998). Dyslexia Adult Screening Test (DAST). Pearson.

  • Flanagan, D. P., Ortiz, S. O., Alfonso, V. C. (2007). Essentials of cross-battery assessment, second edition. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. 

  • Fletcher, J., & Miciak, J. (2017). Comprehensive cognitive assessments are not necessary for the identification and treatment of learning disabilities. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 32(1), 2–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Freed, B. (1987). Exemptions from the foreign language requirement: A review of recent literature, problems, and policy. ADFL Bulletin, 18(2), 13–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furlano, R., Goodrich, S., Darr, W., Gibbard, K., Ho, J. L., Wang, Z., Pike, M. D., Provencher, Y., Zhang, I. Y., Vreeker-Williamson, E. C., & Hausdorf, P. A. (2021). Determining the appropriateness of extended time accommodations in standardized cognitive ability testing. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 53(2), 152–163. https://doi-org.proxy.queensu.ca/10.1037/cbs0000257

  • Garb, H. N. (1998). Studying the clinician: Judgment research and psychological assessment. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10299-000

  • Garb, H. (2013). Cognitive and social factors influencing clinical judgment in psychiatric practice. World Psychiatry, 12(2), 108–110.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Garland-Thomson, R. (2002). Integrating disability, transforming feminist theory. National Women’s Studies Association Journal, 3, 1–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ganschow, L., Sparks, R., Javorsky, J., Pohlman, J., & Bishop-Marbury, A. (1991). Identifying native language difficulties among foreign language learners in college: A “foreign” language learning disability? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24(9), 530–541.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gathje, R., Lewandowski, L., & Gordon, M. (2008). The role of impairment in the diagnosis of ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 11(5), 529–537.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gentes, E., & Ruscio, A. (2014). Perceptions of functioning in worry and generalized anxiety disorder. Cognitive Therapy Research, 38, 518–529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-014-9618-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilman, B., Lovecky, D., Kearney, K., Peters, D., Wasserman, J., Silverman, L., Postma, M., Robinson, N., Amend, E., Ryder-Schoeck, M., Curry, P., Lyon, S., Rogers, K., Collins, L., Charlebois, G., Harsin, C., & Rimm, S. (2013). Critical issues in the identification of gifted students with co-existing disabilities: The twice-exceptional. SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013505855

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golan, M., Singer, G., Rabin, N., & Kleper, D. (2020). Integrating actual time usage into the assessment of examination time extensions provided to disabled college engineering students. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 45(7), 988–1000. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2020.1717434

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gold, L., Anfang, S., Drukteinis, A., Metzner, J., Price, M., Wall, B., Wylonis, L., & Zonana, H. (2008). AAPL practice guideline for the forensic evaluation of psychiatric disability. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 36(Suppl 4), S3–S50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, J., Freed, B., & McMannus, W. (1988). The measurement of foreign language learning disabilities in college students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21(7), 429–430.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, J., Freed, B., & McManus, W.(1990). Determining exemptions from foreign language requirements: Use of the Modern Language Aptitude Test. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 15(2), 131–141.

  • Gordon, S. (2016). Crossing the line: Daubert, dual roles, and the admissibility of forensic mental health testimony. Cardozo Law Review, 37, 1345–1399.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, M., Antshel, K., Faraone, S., Barkley, R., Lewandowski, L., Hudziak, J., Biederman, J., & Cunningham, C. (2006). Symptoms versus impairment: The case for respecting DSM-IV’s Criterion D. Journal of Attention Disorders, 9(3), 465–475. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054705283881

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, M., Lewandowski, L., Murphy, K., & Dempsey, K. (2002). ADA-based accommodations in higher education: A survey of clinicians about documentation requirements and diagnostic standards. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(4), 357–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194020350040601

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grigorenko, E. (2002). Foreign language acquisition and language-based learning disabilities. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 95–112). John Benjamins.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gyns, J., Willis, W., & Faust, D. (1995). School psychologists’ diagnoses of learning disabilities; A study of illusory correlation. Journal of School Psychology, 31, 59–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale, J., Alfonso, V., Berninger, V., Bracken, B., Christo, C., Clark, E., Cohen, M., Davis, A., Decker, S., Denckla, M., Dumont, R., Elliott, C., Feifer, S., Fiorello, C., Flanagan, D., Fletcher-Janzen, E., Geary, D., Gerber, M., Gerner, M., … Yalof, J. (2010). Critical issues in response-to-intervention, comprehensive evaluation, and specific learning disabilities identification and intervention: An expert white paper consensus. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33, 223–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/073194871003300310

  • Hale, J. B., & Fiorello, C. A. (2004). School neuropsychology: A practitioner's handbook. Guilford Press.

  • Hall, M. (Winter, 2019). Critical disability theory. In E. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/disability-critical/

  • Harrison, A. G. (2017). Clinical, ethical, and forensic implications of a flexible threshold for LD and ADHD in postsecondary settings. Psychological Injury and Law, 10(2), 138–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, A. G. (2020, February). Understanding normal variability in human performance when making disability determinations. Poster session presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Denver, CO.

  • Harrison, A. G., Beal, A., & Armstrong, I. (2021a). Predictive value of performance validity testing and symptom validity testing in psychoeducational assessment. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2021a.1943396

  • Harrison, A. G., Butt, K., & Armstrong, I. (2019a). Comparing age- and grade-based norms on the Woodcock-Johnson III Normative Update. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 79(5), 855–873.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, A. G., & Edwards, M. (2010). Symptom exaggeration in post-secondary students: Preliminary base rates in a Canadian sample. Applied Neuropsychology, 17, 135–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, A. G., Edwards, M., Armstrong, I., & Parker, K. (2010). An investigation of methods to detect feigned reading disabilities. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 25(2), 89–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, A. G., Edwards, M., & Parker, K. (2007). Identifying students faking ADHD: Preliminary findings and strategies for detection. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(5), 577–588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.03.008

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, A. G., & Harrison, K. (2019). A critical analysis of the Nelson Denny Reading Test as a method of identifying reading impairment in adults. Psychological Injury and Law, 12, 17–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, A. G., Harrison, K., & Armstrong, I. (2019b). Discriminating malingered attention deficit hyperactivity disorder from genuine symptom reporting using novel Personality Assessment Inventory validity measures. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2019b.1702043

  • Harrison, A. G., Holmes, A., & Harrison, K. (2018). Medically confirmed functional impairment as proof of accommodation need in postsecondary education: Are Ontario’s campuses the bellwether of an inequitable decision-making paradigm? The Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 187, 48–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, A. G., Lovett, B. J., & Gordon, M. (2013). Documenting disabilities in postsecondary settings: Diagnosticians’ understanding of legal regulations and diagnostic standards. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 28(4), 303–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573513508527

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, A. G., Lovett, B. J., Keiser, S., & Armstrong, I. (2021b). Learning disability documentation submitted by osteopathic medical students. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 28(2), 245–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2019.1627358

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, A. G., Nay, S., & Armstrong, I. (2019c). Diagnostic accuracy of the Conners’ Adult ADHD Rating Scale in a postsecondary population. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23, 1829–1837. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054715625299

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, A. G., & Nichols, E. (2005). A validation study of the Dyslexia Adult Screening Test (DAST) in a post-secondary population in Canada. Journal of Research in Reading, 28(4), 423–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, N. (2016). Concept creep: Psychology’s expanding concepts of harm and pathology. Psychological Inquiry, 27(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2016.1082418

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hearn, M. (2011). Dual relationships: Managing the boundaries. In D. Evans (Ed.), Law, standards, and ethics in the practice of psychology (3rd ed., pp. 123–177). Carswell.

  • Holmes, A., & Silvestri, R. (2019). Extra time or unused time? What data from a college testing center tells us about 50% extra time as an accommodation for students with learning disabilities. Psychological Injury and Law, 12(1), 7–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-019-09339-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iverson, G. (2014, November). Improving the methodology for identifying cognitive impairment in psychiatry and neurology. Keynote lecture presented at the 25th Anniversary Conference of the Swedish Neuropsychological Society, Stockholm, Sweden.

  • Jachimowicz, G., & Geiselman, R. (2004). Comparison of ease of falsification of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder diagnosis using standard behavioral rating sales. Cognitive Science Online., 2, 6–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jasinski, L., Harp, J., Berry, D., Shandera-Ochsner, A., Koehl, L., & Ranseen, J. (2011). Using symptom validity tests to detect malingered ADHD in college students. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25, 1415–1428. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2011.630024

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joy, J., Julius, R., Akter, R., & Baron, D. A. (2010). Assessment of ADHD documentation from candidates requesting Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) accommodations for the National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners COMPLEX exam. Journal of Attention Disorders, 14(2), 104–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054710365056

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1985). Evidential impact of base rates. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (pp. 153–160). Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kavale, K., & Flanagan, D. (2007). Ability-achievement discrepancy, response to intervention, and assessment of cognitive abilities/processes in specific learning disability identification: Toward a contemporary operational definition. In S. Jimerson, M. Burns, & A. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 130–147). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-49053-3_10

  • Kibby, M., Vadnais, S., & Jagger-Rickels, A. (2019). Which components of processing speed are affected in ADHD subtypes? Child Neuropsychology, 25(7), 964–979.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kozma, G. (April, 2016). Extra Time In Exams: Your Child May Be Eligible. Huffpost. https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2016/04/11/extra-time-in-exams-your-child-may-be-eligible_n_7321738.html

  • Labarge, A., McCaffrey, R., & Brown, T. (2003). Neuropsychologists’ abilities to determine the predictive value of diagnostic tests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18(2), 165–175. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/18.2.165

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, C., & Hunsley, J. (2015). Evidence-based practice: Separating science from pseudoscience. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 60(12), 534–540. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371506001203

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lester, G., & Kelman, M. (1997). State disparities in the diagnosis and placement of pupils with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(6), 599–607.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, T. (2014). Truth-default theory (TDT): A theory of human deception and deception detection. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 33(4), 378–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewandowski, L., Cohen, J., & Lovett, B. J. (2013). Effects of extended time allotments on reading comprehension performance of college students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 31(3), 326–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282912462693

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lilienfeld, S., Ammirati, R., & David, M. (2012). Distinguishing science from pseudoscience in school psychology: Science and scientific thinking as safeguards against human error. Journal of School Psychology, 50(1), 7–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lilienfeld, S., Wood, J., & Garb, H. (2007). Why questionable psychological tests remain popular. Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine, 10(1), 6–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovett, B. J. (2020). Extended time testing accommodations for students with disabilities: Impact on score meaning and construct representation. In M. Margolis & R. Feinberg (Eds.). Integrating Timeing considerations to Improve Testing Practices (pp. 47–58). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351064781

  • Lovett, B. J., Harrison, A. G., & Armstrong, I. (2019a). Processing speed and timed academic skills in children with learning problems. Applied Neuropsychology: Child. Advanced Online Publication, https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2020.1824119

  • Lovett, B. J., & Lewandowski, L. (2015). Testing accommodations for students with disabilities: Research-based practice. American Psychological Association. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1chs689.Lovett

  • Lovett, B. J., Lewandowski, L. J., & Carter, L. (2019b). Separate room testing accommodations for students with and without ADHD. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 37(7), 852–862.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovett, B. J., & Nelson, J. M. (2017). Test Anxiety and the Americans with Disabilities Act. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 28(2), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207317710699

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luft, L. (2017). The essential role of physician as advocate: How and why we pass it on. Canadian Medical Education Journal, 8(3), e109–e116.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • MacMillan, D., Gresham, F., & Bocian, K. (1998). Discrepancy between definitions of learning disabilities and school practices: An empirical investigation. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31(4), 314–326.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Madaus, J., & Shaw, S. (2004). Section 504: Differences in the regulations for secondary and postsecondary education. Intervention in School and Clinic, 40(2), 81–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maddocks, D. (2018). The identification of students who are gifted and have a learning disability: A comparison of different diagnostic criteria. Gifted Child Quarterly, 62(2), 175–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986217752096

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malina, A., Nelson, N., & Sweet, J. (2005). Framing the relationships in forensic neuropsychology: Ethical issues. Journal of Forensic Neuropsychology, 4(3), 21–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maricle, D., Johnson, W., & Avirett, E. (2010). Assessing and intervening in children with executive function disorders. In D. C. Miller (Ed.), Best practices in school neuropsychology: Guidelines for effective practice, assessment, and evidence-based intervention (pp. 599–640). John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDermott, L., & Ebmeier, K. (2009). A meta-analysis of depression severity and cognitive function. Journal of Affective Disorders, 119(1–3), 1–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGill, R., Dombrowski, S., & Canivez, G. (2018). Cognitive profile analysis in school psychology: History, issues, and continued concerns. Journal of School Psychology, 71, 108–121.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mendel, R., Traut-Mattausch, E., Jonas, E., Leucht, S., Kane, J., Maino, K., Kissling, W., & Hamann, J. (2011). Confirmation bias: Why psychiatrists stick to wrong preliminary diagnoses. Psychological Medicine, 41, 2651–2659.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miciak, J., & Fletcher, J. (2020). The critical role of instructional response for identifying dyslexia and other learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 53(5), 343–353.Garb, H. (1998). Studying the clinician. American Psychological Association.

  • Miciak, J., Fletcher, J., Stuebing, K., Vaughn, S., & Tolar, T. D. (2014). Patterns of cognitive strengths and weaknesses: Identification rates, agreement, and validity for learning disabilities identification. School Psychology Quarterly, 29(1), 21–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miciak, J., Taylor, W., Denton, C., & Fletcher, J. (2015). The effect of achievement test selection on identification of learning disabilities within a patterns of strengths and weaknesses framework. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(3), 321–335.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miciak, J., Taylor, W. P., Stuebing, K., & Fletcher, J. (2018). Simulation of LD identification accuracy using a pattern of processing strengths and weaknesses method with multiple measures. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 36(1), 21–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miciak, J., Williams, J., Taylor, W., Cirino, P., Fletcher, J., & Vaughn, S. (2016). Do processing patterns of strengths and weaknesses predict differential treatment response? Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(6), 898–909.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, L., Lewandowski, L., & Antshel, K. (2015). Effects of extended time for college students with and without ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19(8), 678–686. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713483308

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, D. J., Pineles, L., Owczarzak, J., Magder, L., Scherer, L., Brown, J. P., Pfeiffer, C., Terndrup, C., Leykum, L., Feldstein, D., Foy, A., Stevens, D., Koch, C., Masnick, M., Weisenberg, S., & Korenstein, D. (2021). Accuracy of Practitioner Estimates of Probability of Diagnosis Before and After Testing. JAMA Internal Medicine, 181(6), 747–755. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2021.0269

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Naglieri, J. A. (1999). Essentials of CAS assessment. John Wiley & Sons Inc.

  • Nelson, J., Whipple, B., Lindstrom, W., & Foels, P. (2019). How is ADHD assessed and documented? Examination of psychological reports submitted to determine eligibility for postsecondary disability. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(14), 1780–1791.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nickerson, R. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Donohue, W., & Fisher, J. (2006). Introduction: Clinician’s handbook of evidence-based practice guidelines: The role of practice guidelines in systematic quality improvement. In J. Fisher & W. O’Donohue (Eds.), Practitioner’s guide to evidence-based psychotherapy (pp. 1–23). Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Reilly, C., Northcraft, G., & Sabers, D. (1989). The confirmation bias in special education eligibility decisions. School Psychology Review, 18(1), 126–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, M., & Barnes, C. (1993). Discrimination, disability and welfare: From needs to rights. In J. Swain, V. Finkelstein, S. French, & M. Oliver (Eds.), Disabling barriers—Enabling environments (pp. 267–277). Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, T., & Mausbach, B. (2010). Measurement of functional capacity: A new approach to understanding functional differences and real-world behavioral adaptation in those with mental illness. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 139–154.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pennycook, G., & Thompson, V. (2017). Base-rate neglect. In R. Pohl (Ed.), Cognitive illusions: Intriguing phenomena in thinking, judgment and memory (pp. 44–61). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ranseen, J., & Allen, T. (2019). Disability evaluation for accommodation on licensing exams based on the ADA: Why do clinicians fail to adopt a forensic perspective? Psychological Injury and Law, 12, 64–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-019-09342-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reschly, D. (2005). Learning disabilities identification: Primary intervention, secondary intervention, and then what? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(6), 510–515.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, P., Geiger, J., & Tussey, C. (2015). The dirty dozen: 12 sources of bias in forensic neuropsychology and ways to mitigate. Psychological Injury and Law, 8, 265–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rioux, M., & Prince, M. (2002). The Canadian political landscape of disability: Policy perspectives, social status, interest groups and the rights movement. In A. Puttee (Ed.), Federalism, Democracy, and Disability Policy in Canada (pp. 11–28). McGill Queen’s.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, M., Marraccini, M., Lubiner, A., Dupont-Frechette, J., & O’Bryon, E. (2020). Advancing advocacy: Lessons learned from advocates in school psychology. Psychological Services, 17(S1), 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, W. (2013). Principles of assessment of aptitude and achievement. In D. Saklofske, C. Reynolds, & V. Schwean (Eds.), Oxford handbook of psychological assessment of children and adolescents (pp. 286–330). Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, R. (1999). The case for course substitutions as a reasonable accommodation for students with foreign language learning difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 320–328.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, L. (2006). Perspectives on dyslexia. Paediatrics & Child Health, 11(9), 581–587. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/11.9.581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sokal, L., & Vermette, L. (2017). Double time? Examining extended time testing accommodations (ETTA) in post-secondary settings. The Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 30(2), 185–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sollman, M., Ranseen, J., & Berry, D. (2010). Detection of feigned ADHD in college students. Psychological Assessment, 22(2), 325–335.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sparks, R. (2001). Foreign language learning problems of students classified as learning disabled and non-learning disabled: Is there a difference? Topics in Language Disorders, 21, 38–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sparks, R. (2006). Is there a ‘disability’ for learning a foreign language? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 544–557.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sparks, R. (2009). If you don’t know where you’re going, you’ll wind up somewhere else: The case of “foreign language learning disability.” Foreign Language Annals, 42, 7–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sparks, R. (2016). Myths about foreign language learning and learning disabilities. Foreign Language Annals, 49(2), 252–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sparks, R., & Lovett, B. (2009). Objective criteria for classification of postsecondary students as learning disabled: Effects on prevalence rates and group characteristics. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(3), 230–239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sparks, R., & Lovett, B. (2013). Applying objective diagnostic criteria to students in a college support program for learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 36(4), 231–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K. (2005). The future of a mistake: Will discrepancy measurement continue to make the learning disabilities field a pseudoscience? Learning Disability Quarterly, 28(2), 103–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K., West, R., & Toplak, M. (2013). Myside bias, rational thinking, and intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(4), 259–264. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413480174

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stuebing, K., Fletcher, J., LeDoux, J., Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S., & Shaywitz, B. (2002). Validity of IQ-discrepancy classifications of reading disabilities: A meta-analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 39(2), 469–518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suhr, J. & Wei, C. (2017). ADHD as an illness identity. In K.B. Boone (Ed.), Neuropsychological evaluation of somatoform and other functional somatic conditions: Assessment primer. NY: Routledge.

  • Sullivan, B., May, K., & Galbally, L. (2007). Symptom exaggeration by college adults in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and learning disorder assessments. Applied Neuropsychology, 14(3), 189–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/09084280701509083

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, W., Miciak, J., Fletcher, J., & Francis, D. (2017). Cognitive discrepancy models for specific learning disabilities identification: Simulations of psychometric limitations. Psychological Assessment, 29(4), 446–457.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thombs, B. D., Kwakkenbos, L., Levis, A. W., & Benedetti, A. (2018). Addressing overestimation of the prevalence of depression based on self-report screening questionnaires. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 190(2), E44–E49. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.170691

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Toppo, G. (2019). Support builds for making the SAT untimed for everyone. Education next, 20(1), 42–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trevethan, R. (2017). Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values: Foundations, pliabilities, and pitfalls in research and practice. Frontiers in Public Health, 5, 307. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00307

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Trimble, M. (2019, March 12). The charging documents in the college admissions scandal. U.S. News. https://www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2019-03-12/read-full-indictment-complaint-in-elite-college-admissions-bribery-scandal

  • U.S. Census Bureau (2016). Educational attainment in the United States: 2016. https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2016/demo/education-attainment/cps-detailed-tables.html

  • Watkins, M. (2003). IQ subtest analysis: Clinical acumen or clinical illusion? The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice: Objective Investigations of Controversial and Unorthodox Claims in Clinical Psychology, Psychiatry, and Social Work, 2(2), 118–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, M. (2001). Should physicians be gatekeepers of medical resources? Journal of Medical Ethics, 27, 268–274.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Weis, R., & Beauchemin, E. L. (2020). Are separate room test accommodations effective for college students with disabilities? Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 45(5), 794–809.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weis, R., Erikson, C., & Till, C. (2016). When average is not good enough: Students with learning disabilities at selective, private colleges. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(6), 684–700. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219416646706

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weis, R., Speridakos, E., & Ludwig, K. (2014). Community college students with learning disabilities: Evidence of impairment, possible misclassification, and a documentation disconnect. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47, 556–568.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weis, R., Till, C., & Erickson, C. (2019). ADHD assessment in college students: Psychologists’ adherence to DSM-5 criteria and multi-method/multi-informant assessment. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 37(2), 209–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolforth, J. (2012). Why we need reliable, valid, and appropriate learning disability assessments: The perspective of a postsecondary disability service provider. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 27(1), 58–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573512437025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ysseldyke, J., & Algozzine, B. (1983). LD or not LD: That’s not the question! Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16(1), 29–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ysseldyke, J., Algozzine, B., Richey, L., & Graden, J. (1982). Declaring students eligible for learning disability services: Why bother with the data? Learning Disability Quarterly, 5(1), 37–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada

    Allyson G. Harrison

  2. Mt. St. Joseph University, Cincinnati, OH, USA

    Richard Sparks

Authors
  1. Allyson G. Harrison
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Richard Sparks
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Allyson G. Harrison.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Harrison, A., Sparks, R. Disability Diagnoses: Seven Sins of Clinicians. Psychol. Inj. and Law 15, 268–286 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-022-09449-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-022-09449-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation