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Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Olive Pomace Oil: Occurrence, Analytical Determination, and Mitigation Strategies

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Abstract

Environmental pollution, agricultural practices, climate change, and the various stages of edible oil production are responsible for oil contamination with various chemicals. Among vegetable fats, olive pomace oils (OPOs) have higher polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contents, exceeding the limits in some cases. Several methods for the determination of PAHs in animal and vegetable fats and oils have been published over the years, but they have often failed to eliminate matrix-specific interferences in OPO. The few methods proposed or applied for the specific analysis of PAHs in OPO over the past 20 years are mainly based on two different analytical approaches, namely liquid chromatography-fluorescence detector (LC-FLD) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). In the case of the LC-FLD approaches, liquid–liquid extraction with appropriate solvents and one or more purification steps on stationary phases of different compositions are performed. In the case of GC techniques, on the other hand, the most commonly used sample preparation is liquid–liquid partitioning. Due to widespread public concern about PAH contamination, several studies have been conducted to explore ways to mitigate the presence of PAHs in OPOs (i.e., refining processes).

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Abbreviations

A:

Anthracene

ACN:

Acetonitrile

BaA:

Benzo[a]anthracene

BaP:

Benzo[a]pyrene

BbF:

Benzo[b]fluoranthene

BeP:

Benzo[e]pyrene

BghiP:

Benzo[g,h,i]perylene

BkF:

Benzo[k]fluoranthene

Ch:

Chrysene

CyHex:

Cyclohexane

DCM:

Dichloromethane

DMF:

Dimethylformamide

DMSO:

Dimethyl sulfoxide

EEC:

European Economic Community

EFSA :

European Food Safety Authority

EPA:

Environmental Protection Agency

EU :

European Union

EVOO :

Extra virgin olive oil

Ft:

Fluoranthene

FLD :

Fluorometric detector

FS:

Full scan

GC:

Gas chromatography

GC × GC :

Comprehensive gas chromatography

GPC:

Gel permeation chromatography

Hex:

Hexane

HPLC:

High-performance liquid chromatography

IPA:

Isopropyl alcohol

JECFA:

Joint Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives

LC :

Liquid chromatography

LLE:

Liquid-liquid extraction

LOD:

Limit of detection

LOQ:

Limit of quantification

MCPD:

Monochloropropanediol

MeOH:

Methanol

MOSH:

Mineral oil saturated hydrocarbons

MOAH:

Mineral oil aromatic hydrocarbons

MS:

Mass spectrometry

MS/MS:

Tandem mass spectrometry

OPO:

Olive pomace oil

Pyr:

Pyrene

Phe:

Phenanthrene

PAH4:

Benzo[a]pyrene, chrysene, benzo[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene

PAH8:

Benzo[a]pyrene, chrysene, benzo[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[g,h,i]perylene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, indeno[1,2,3-cd] pyrene

PAHs:

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PS-DVB:

Polystyrene divinylbenzene

RP:

Reversed-phase

RSD:

Relative standard deviation

SCF:

Scientific Committee on Food

SEC :

Size exclusion chromatography

SIM:

Single ion monitoring

SPE:

Solid phase extraction

SPME:

Solid phase microextraction

TLC:

Thin-layer chromatography

US:

United States

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  1. Department of Agri-Food, Environmental and Animal Sciences, University of Udine, Via Sondrio 2/A, 33100, Udine, Italy

    Laura Barp & Sabrina Moret

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Barp, L., Moret, S. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Olive Pomace Oil: Occurrence, Analytical Determination, and Mitigation Strategies. Food Anal. Methods (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-024-02630-9

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