Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Physical Activity in Older Adults: an Ecological Approach

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Annals of Behavioral Medicine

Abstract

Background

Studies identifying correlates of physical activity (PA) at all levels of the ecological model can provide an empirical basis for designing interventions to increase older adults’ PA.

Purpose

Applying ecological model principles, this study concurrently examined individual, psychosocial, and environmental correlates of older adults’ PA to determine whether built environment factors contribute to PA over and above individual/demographic and psychosocial variables.

Methods

Using a cross-sectional observational design, 726 adults, aged ≥66 years, were recruited from two US regions. Explanatory variables included demographics, self-efficacy, social support, barriers, and environmental variables measured by using geographic information systems (GIS) and self-report. Outcomes included reported walking for errands and leisure/exercise and accelerometer-measured daily moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA). Analyses employed mixed-model regressions with backward elimination.

Results

For daily MVPA, the only significant environmental variable was GIS-based proximity to a park (p < 0.001) after controlling for individual/demographic and psychosocial factors. Walking for errands was positively related to four environmental variables: reported walking/cycling facilities (p < 0.05), GIS-based intersection density (p < 0.01), mixed land use (p < 0.01), and private recreation facilities (p < 0.01). Walking for leisure/exercise was negatively related to GIS-based mixed land use (p < 0.05). Non-Hispanic white race/ethnicity, self-efficacy, and social support positively related to all three PA outcomes (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Correlates of older adults’ PA were found at all ecological levels, supporting multiple levels of influence and need for multilevel interventions. Environmental correlates varied by PA outcome. Walking for errands exhibited the most environmental associations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Troiano RP, Berrigan D, Dodd KW, Mâsse LC, Tilert T, McDowell M. Physical activity in the United States measured by accelerometer. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40(1):181–8. doi: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31815a51b3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Bellavia A, Bottai M, Wolk A, Orsini N. Physical activity and mortality in a prospective cohort of middle-aged and elderly men—a time perspective. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2013;10:94. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-10-94.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Sun F, Norman IJ, While AE. Physical activity in older people: a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2013;13(1):449. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-13-449.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. Washington: HHS; 2008.

  5. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Step It Up! The Surgeon General’s Call to Action to Promote Walking and Walkable Communities. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General; 2015.

  6. Sallis JF, Owen N. Ecological models of health behavior. In: Glanz K, Rimer BK, Viswanath K, eds. Health behavior and health education: theory, research, and practice. 5th ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 2015:43–64.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Michie S, Johnston M, Francis J, Hardeman W, Eccles M. From theory to intervention: mapping theoretically derived behavioural determinants to behaviour change techniques. Appl Psychol. 2008;57(4):660–680. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00341.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Frank LD, Kerr J, Rosenberg D, King A. Healthy aging and where you live: community design relationships with physical activity and body weight in older Americans. J Phys Act Health. 2010;7 Suppl 1:S82–90. doi: 10.1177/0885412211415283.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Van Cauwenberg J, De Bourdeaudhuij I, De Meester F, et al. Relationship between the physical environment and physical activity in older adults: a systematic review. Health Place. 2011;17(2):458–469. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.11.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Giles-Corti B, Timperio A, Bull F, Pikora T. Understanding physical activity environmental correlates: increased specificity for ecological models. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2005;33(4):175–81. doi: 10.1097/00003677-200510000-00005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Kerr J, Rosenberg D, Frank L. The role of the built environment in healthy aging: community design, physical activity, and health among older adults. J Plan Lit. 2012;27(1):43–60. doi: 10.1177/0885412211415283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Nagel CL, Carlson NE, Bosworth M, Michael YL. The relation between neighborhood built environment and walking activity among older adults. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;168(4):461–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Michael YL, Perdue LA, Orwoll ES, Stefanick ML, Marshall LM. Physical activity resources and changes in walking in a cohort of older men. Am J Public Health. 2010;100(4):654–60.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Sallis JF, King AC, Sirard JR, Albright CL. Perceived environmental predictors of physical activity over 6 months in adults: activity counseling trial. Health Psychol. 2007;26(6):701–9. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.26.6.701.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Shigematsu R, Sallis JF, Conway TL, et al. Age differences in the relation of perceived neighborhood environment to walking. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(2):314–21. doi: 10.1249/mss.0b013e318185496c.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Lin L, Moudon AV. Objective versus subjective measures of the built environment, which are most effective in capturing associations with walking?. Health Place. 2010;16(2):339–48. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2009.11.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. King AC, Sallis JF, Frank LD, et al. Aging in neighborhoods differing in walkability and income: associations with physical activity and obesity in older adults. Soc Sci Med. 2011;73(10):1525–33. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.08.032.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Strath SJ, Greenwald MJ, Isaacs R, et al. Measured and perceived environmental characteristics are related to accelerometer defined physical activity in older adults. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2012;9(1):40. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-9-40.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Sallis JF, Cervero RB, Ascher W, Henderson KA, Kraft MK, Kerr J. An ecological approach to creating active living communities. Annu Rev Public Health. 2006;27:297–322. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.27.021405.102100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Saelens BE, Sallis JF, Frank LD. Environmental correlates of walking and cycling: findings from the transportation, urban design, and planning literatures. Ann Behav Med. 2003;25(2):80–91. doi: 10.1207/s15324796abm2502_03.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Frank LD, Sallis JF, Saelens BE, et al. The development of a walkability index: application to the neighborhood quality of life study. Br J Sports Med. 2010;44(13):924–33. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2009.058701.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Freedson PS, Melanson E, Sirard J. Calibration of the computer science and applications, Inc. accelerometer. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998;30(5):777–81. doi: 10.1097/00005768-199805000-00021.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Stewart AL, Mills KM, King AC, Haskell WL, Gillis D, Ritter PL. CHAMPS physical activity questionnaire for older adults: outcomes for interventions. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(7):1126–41. doi: 10.1097/00005768-200107000-00010.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Harada ND, Chiu V, King AC, Stewart AL. An evaluation of three self-report physical activity instruments for older adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(6):962–70. doi: 10.1097/00005768-200106000-00016.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Sayers S, Jette A, Haley S, Heeren T, Guralnik J, Fielding R. Validation of the late-life function and disability instrument. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004;52(9):1554–1559. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52422.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Jette AM, Haley SM, Coster WJ, et al. Late life function and disability instrument I. Development and evaluation of the disability component. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2002;57(4):M209–16. doi: 10.1093/gerona/57.4.m209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Garcia A, King A. Predicting long-term adherence to aerobic exercise: a comparison of two models. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 1991;13:394–410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Marcus BH, Rakowski W, Rossi JS. Assessing motivational readiness and decision making for exercise. Health Psychol. 1992;11(4):257–61. doi: 10.1037//0278-6133.11.4.257.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Sallis JF, Grossman RM, Pinski RB, Patterson TL, Nader PR. The development of scales to measure social support for diet and exercise behaviors. Prev Med. 1987;16(6):825–36. doi: 10.1016/0091-7435(87)90022-3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Villanueva K, Knuiman M, Nathan A, et al. The impact of neighborhood walkability on walking: does it differ across adult life stage and does neighborhood buffer size matter?. Health Place. 2014;25:43–6. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.10.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Abercrombie LC, Sallis JF, Conway TL, Frank LD, Saelens BE, Chapman JE. Income and racial disparities in access to public parks and private recreation facilities. Am J Prev Med. 2008;34(1):9–15. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2007.09.030.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Saelens BE, Sallis JF, Black JB, Chen D. Neighborhood-based differences in physical activity: an environment scale evaluation. Am J Public Health. 2003;93(9):1552–8. doi: 10.2105/ajph.93.9.1552.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. McNeill LH, Wyrwich KW, Brownson RC, Clark EM, Kreuter MW. Individual, social environmental, and physical environmental influences on physical activity among black and white adults: a structural equation analysis. Ann Behav Med. 2006;31(1):36–44. doi: 10.1207/s15324796abm3101_7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Saelens BE, Sallis JF, Frank LD, et al. Neighborhood environment and psychosocial correlates of adults’ physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44(4):637–46. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.10.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Shimura H, Sugiyama T, Winkler E, Owen N. High neighborhood walkability mitigates declines in middle-to-older aged adults’ walking for transport. J Phys Act Health. 2012;9(7):1004–8. doi: 10.1123/jpah.2012-0244.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Van Holle V, Van Cauwenberg J, Van Dyck D, Deforche B, Van de Weghe N, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Relationship between neighborhood walkability and older adults’ physical activity: results from the Belgian environmental physical activity study in seniors (BEPAS seniors). Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2014;11(1). doi: 10.1186/s12966-014-0110-3.

  37. Lachapelle U, Frank LD. Transit and health: mode of transport, employer-sponsored public transit pass programs, and physical activity. J Public Health Policy. 2009;30 Suppl 1:S73–94. doi: 10.1057/jphp.2008.52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Michael YL, Perdue LA, Orwoll ES, Stefanick ML, Marshall LM. Physical activity resources and changes in walking in a cohort of older men. Am J Public Health. 2010;100(4):654–60. doi: 10.2105/ajph.2009.172031.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Gómez LF, Parra DC, Buchner D, et al. Built environment attributes and walking patterns among the elderly population in Bogotá. Am J Prev Med. 2010;38(6):592–99. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2010.02.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Tappe KA, Glanz K, Sallis JF, Zhou C, Saelens BE. Children’s physical activity and parents’ perception of the neighborhood environment: neighborhood impact on kids study. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2013;10:39. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-10-39.

  41. Ding D, Sallis JF, Conway TL, et al. Interactive effects of built environment and psychosocial attributes on physical activity: a test of ecological models. Ann Behav Med. 2012;44(3):365–74. doi: 10.1007/s12160-012-9394-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Bandura, A. Social foundations of thought and action. New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs; 1986.

  43. Trost SG, Owen N, Bauman AE, Sallis JF, Brown W. Correlates of adults’ participation in physical activity: review and update. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;34(12):1996–2001. doi: 10.1097/00005768-200212000-00020.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Macera C, Cavanaugh A, Bellettiere J. State of the art review: physical activity and older adults. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2015. doi: 10.1177/1559827615571897.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Newson RS, Kemps EB. Factors that promote and prevent exercise engagement in older adults. J Aging Health. 2007;19(3):470–81. doi: 10.1177/0898264307300169.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Smith K, Carr K, Wiseman A, Calhoun K, McNevin N, Weir P. Barriers are not the limiting factor to participation in physical activity in Canadian seniors. J Aging Res. 2012;2012: 1–8. doi: 10.1155/2012/890679.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Evenson KR, Buchner DM, Morland KB. Objective measurement of physical activity and sedentary behavior among US adults aged 60 years or older. Prev Chronic Dis. 2012;9: E26. doi: 10.5888/pcd9.110109.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Joint Doctoral Program in Public Health, Health Behavior, University of California, San Diego/San Diego State University, 3900 Fifth Avenue, Suite 310, San Diego, CA, 92103, USA

    Christina M. Thornton JD, MA

  2. Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive # 0811, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA

    Jacqueline Kerr PhD

  3. Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of California, San Diego, 3900 Fifth Avenue, Suite 310, San Diego, CA, 92103, USA

    Terry L. Conway PhD, James F. Sallis PhD & Kelli L. Cain MA

  4. Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington and Seattle Children’s Research Institute, 2001 Eighth Ave, Suite 400, Seattle, WA, 98121, USA

    Brian E. Saelens PhD

  5. Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, 1070 Arastradero Road, Suite 100, Palo Alto, CA, USA

    David K. Ahn PhD & Abby C. King PhD

  6. School of Community and Regional Planning, University of British Columbia, #433-6333 Memorial Road Vancouver, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z2, Canada

    Lawrence D. Frank PhD

  7. Urban Design 4 Health, Inc., Seattle, WA, USA

    Lawrence D. Frank PhD

  8. Division of Epidemiology, Department of Health Research and Policy, and Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, 259 Campus Drive, HRP Redwood Building, T221, Stanford, CA, 94305-5405, USA

    Abby C. King PhD

Authors
  1. Christina M. Thornton JD, MA
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jacqueline Kerr PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Terry L. Conway PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Brian E. Saelens PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. James F. Sallis PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. David K. Ahn PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Lawrence D. Frank PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Kelli L. Cain MA
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Abby C. King PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christina M. Thornton JD, MA.

Ethics declarations

Funding

This study was supported by US National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute grant R01 HL077141. The sponsor had no role in the preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript for publication.

Authors’ Statement of Conflict of Interest and Adherence to Ethical Standards

Authors Christina M. Thornton, Jacqueline Kerr, Terry L. Conway, Brian E. Saelens, James F. Sallis, David K. Ahn, Lawrence D. Frank, Kelli L. Cain, and Abby C. King declare that they have no conflict of interest. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Thornton, C.M., Kerr, J., Conway, T.L. et al. Physical Activity in Older Adults: an Ecological Approach. ann. behav. med. 51, 159–169 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-016-9837-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-016-9837-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation