Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Relationship Between Exercise Intensity and Affective Responses Demystified: To Crack the 40-Year-Old Nut, Replace the 40-Year-Old Nutcracker!

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Annals of Behavioral Medicine

Abstract

Background

A causal chain linking exercise intensity, affective responses (e.g., pleasure–displeasure), and adherence has long been suspected as a contributor to the public health problem of physical inactivity. However, progress in the investigation of this model has been limited, mainly due to inconsistent findings on the first link between exercise intensity and affective responses.

Purpose

The purpose was to reexamine the intensity–affect relationship using a new methodological platform.

Methods

Thirty young adults (14 women and 16 men) participated in 15-min treadmill exercise sessions below, at, and above their ventilatory threshold. The innovative elements were the following: (a) Affect was assessed in terms of the dimensions of the circumplex model; (b) assessments were made repeatedly during and after exercise; (c) patterns of interindividual variability were examined; (d) intensity was determined in relation to the ventilatory threshold; and (e) hypotheses derived from the dual-mode model were tested.

Results

Intensity did not influence the positive changes from pre- to post-exercise, but it did influence the responses during exercise, with the intensity that exceeded the ventilatory threshold eliciting significant and relatively homogeneous decreases in pleasure.

Conclusions

Exceeding the intensity of the ventilatory threshold appears to reduce pleasure, an effect that could negatively impact adherence.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. World Health Organization. Annual global move for health initiative: A concept paper. Geneva, Switzerland: Author; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  2. United States National Center for Health Statistics. Healthy people 2000 review, 1998–1999. Hyattsville, MD: Public Health Service; 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Macera CA, Ham SA, Yore MM, et al. Prevalence of physical activity in the United States: Behavioral risk factor surveillance system, 2001. Prev Chronic Dis. 2005; 2(2):A17.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Dishman RK. The problem of exercise adherence: fighting sloth in nations with market economies. Quest. 2001; 53: 279–294.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Dishman RK, Buckworth J. Adherence to physical activity. In: Morgan WP, ed. Physical Activity and Mental Health. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis; 1997: 63–80.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Perri MG, Anton SD, Durning PE, et al. Adherence to exercise prescriptions: effects of prescribing moderate versus higher levels of intensity and frequency. Health Psychol. 2002; 21: 452–458.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Cox KL, Burke V, Gorely TJ, Beilin LJ, Puddey IB. Controlled comparison of retention and adherence in home vs center initiated exercise interventions in women ages 40 65 years: the S.W.E.A.T. study (Sedentary Women Exercise Adherence Trial). Prev Med. 2003; 36: 17–29.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Lee JY, Jensen BE, Oberman A, et al. Adherence in the training levels comparison trial. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996; 28: 47–52.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Sallis JF, Haskell WL, Fortmann SP, et al. Predictors of adoption and maintenance of physical activity in a community sample. Prev Med. 1986; 15: 331–341.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Panel on Physical Activity and Cardiovascular Health. Physical activity and cardiovascular health. J Am Med Assoc. 1996; 276: 241–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Morgan WP. Involvement in vigorous physical activity with special reference to adherence. Proceedings of the National College Physical Education Association for Men & National Association for Physical Education of College Women National Conference. Chicago, IL; 1977.

  12. Pollock ML. How much exercise is enough. Phys Sportsmed. 1978; 6: 50–64.

    Google Scholar 

  13. United States Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy people 2010, vol 2. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Ekkekakis P, Petruzzello SJ. Acute aerobic exercise and affect: current status, problems, and prospects regarding dose-response. Sports Med. 1999; 28: 337–374.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Emmons RA, Diener E. A goal-affect analysis of everyday situational choices. J Res Pers. 1986; 20: 309–326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Kahneman D. Objective happiness. In: Kahneman D, Diener E, Schwarz N, eds. Well-being: The Foundation of Hedonic Psychology. New York: Sage; 1999: 3–25.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Bechara A, Damasio H, Damasio AR. Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex. 2000; 10: 295–307.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Berger BG, Owen DR. Mood alteration with yoga and swimming: aerobic exercise may not be necessary. Percept Mot Skills. 1992; 75: 1331–1343.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Carels RA, Berger B, Darby L. The association between mood states and physical activity in postmenopausal, obese, sedentary women. J Aging Phys Act. 2006; 14: 12–28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Williams DM, Dunsiger S, Ciccolo JT, et al. Acute affective response to a moderate-intensity exercise stimulus predicts physical activity participation 6 and 12 months later. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2008; 9: 231–245.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Kiviniemi MT, Voss-Humke AM, Seifert AL. How do I feel about the behavior? The interplay of affective associations with behaviors and cognitive beliefs as influences on physical activity behavior. Health Psychol. 2007; 26: 152–158.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Ekkekakis P, Petruzzello SJ. Analysis of the affect measurement conundrum in exercise psychology: fundamental issues. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2000; 2: 71–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Ekkekakis P, Petruzzello SJ. Analysis of the affect measurement conundrum in exercise psychology: a conceptual case for the affect circumplex. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2002; 3: 35–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Russell JA. A circumplex model of affect. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1980; 39: 1161–1178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Acevedo EO, Rinehardt KF, Kraemer RR. Perceived exertion and affect at varying intensities of running. Res Q Exerc Sport. 1994; 65: 372–376.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Hall EE, Ekkekakis P, Petruzzello SJ. The affective beneficence of vigorous exercise revisited. Br J Health Psychol. 2002; 7: 47–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Hardy CJ, Rejeski WJ. Not what, but how one feels: the measurement of affect during exercise. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 1989; 11: 304–317.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Parfitt G, Eston R. Changes in ratings of perceived exertion and psychological affect in the early stages of exercise. Percept Mot Skills. 1995; 80: 259–266.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Parfitt G, Eston R, Connolly D. Psychological affect at different ratings of perceived exertion in high-and low-active women: a study using a production protocol. Percept Mot Skills. 1996; 82: 1035–1042.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Parfitt G, Markland D, Holmes C. Responses to physical exertion in active and inactive males and females. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 1994; 16: 178–186.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Morgan WP. Psychological benefits of physical activity. In: Nagle FJ, Montoye HJ, eds. Exercise in Health and Disease. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas; 1982: 299–314.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Morgan WP. Methodological considerations. In: Morgan WP, ed. Physical Activity and Mental Health. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis; 1997: 3–32.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Van Landuyt LM, Ekkekakis P, Hall EE, Petruzzello SJ. Throwing the mountains into the lakes: on the perils of nomothetic conceptions of the exercise-affect relationship. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2000; 22: 208–234.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Wells JG, Balke B, Van Fossan DD. Lactic acid accumulation during work: a suggested standardization of work classification. J Appl Physiol. 1957; 10: 51–55.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Katch V, Weltman A, Sady S, Freedson P. Validity of the relative percent concept for equating training intensity. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1978; 39: 219–227.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Whipp BJ. Domains of aerobic function and their limiting parameters. In: Steinacker JM, Ward SA, eds. The Physiology and Pathophysiology of Exercise Tolerance. New York: Plenum; 1996: 83–89.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Cabanac M. Exertion and pleasure from an evolutionary perspective. In: Acevedo EO, Ekkekakis P, eds. Psychobiology of Physical Activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2006: 79–89.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Kirkcaldy BC, Shephard RJ. Therapeutic implications of exercise. Int J Sport Psychol. 1990; 21: 165–184.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Ojanen M. Can the true effects of exercise on psychological variables be separated from placebo effects. Int J Sport Psychol. 1994; 25: 63–80.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Ekkekakis P, Hall EE, Van Landuyt LM, Petruzzello SJ. Walking in (affective) circles: can short walks enhance affect. J Behav Med. 2000; 23: 245–275.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Saklofske DH, Blomme GC, Kelly IW. The effects of exercise and relaxation on energetic and tense arousal. Pers Individ Differ. 1992; 13: 623–625.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Thayer RE. Energy, tiredness, and tension effects of a sugar snack versus moderate exercise. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1987; 52: 119–125.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Pronk NP, Crouse SF, Rohack JJ. Maximal exercise and acute mood response in women. Physiol Behav. 1995; 57: 1–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Ekkekakis P. Pleasure and displeasure from the body: perspectives from exercise. Cogn Emot. 2003; 17: 213–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Ekkekakis P. The study of affective responses to acute exercise: the dual-mode model. In: Stelter R, Roessler KK, eds. New Approaches to Sport and Exercise Psychology. Oxford, UK: Meyer & Meyer; 2005: 119–146.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Ekkekakis P, Hall EE, Petruzzello SJ. Variation and homogeneity in affective responses to physical activity of varying intensities: an alternative perspective on dose-response based on evolutionary considerations. J Sports Sci. 2005; 23: 477–500.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Ekkekakis P, Acevedo EO. Affective responses to acute exercise: toward a psychobiological dose-response model. In: Acevedo EO, Ekkekakis P, eds. Psychobiology of Physical Activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2006: 91–109.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Lang PJ. Behavioral treatment and bio-behavioral assessment: computer applications. In: Sodowski JB, Johnson JH, Williams TA, eds. Technology in Mental Health Care Delivery Systems. Norwood, NJ: Ablex; 1980: 119–137.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Russell JA, Weiss A, Mendelsohn GA. Affect Grid: a single item scale of pleasure and arousal. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1989; 57: 493–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Svebak S, Murgatroyd S. Metamotivational dominance: a multimethod validation of reversal theory constructs. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1985; 48: 107–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Thayer RE. The Biopsychology of Mood and Arousal. New York: Oxford University Press; 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Thayer RE. Factor analytic and reliability studies on the Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List. Psychol Rep. 1978; 42: 747–756.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Thayer RE. Activation-deactivation adjective check list: current overview and structural analysis. Psychol Rep. 1986; 58: 607–614.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Ekkekakis P, Hall EE, Petruzzello SJ. Evaluation of the circumplex structure of the Activation Deactivation Adjective Check List before and after a short walk. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2005; 6: 83–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Borg G. Borg’s Perceived Exertion and Pain Scales. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Davis JA, Frank MH, Whipp BJ, Wasserman K. Anaerobic threshold alterations caused by endurance training in middle-aged men. J Appl Physiol. 1979; 46: 1039–1046.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Caiozzo VJ, Davis JA, Ellis JF, et al. A comparison of gas exchange indices used to detect the anaerobic threshold. J Appl Physiol. 1982; 53: 1184–1189.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Fox KR. The influence of physical activity on mental well-being. Public Health Nutr. 1999; 2: 411–418.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Ekkekakis P, Hall EE, Petruzzello SJ. Practical markers of the transition from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism during exercise: rationale and a case for affect-based exercise prescription. Prev Med. 2004; 38: 149–159.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Bixby WR, Spalding TW, Hatfield BD. Temporal dynamics and dimensional specificity of the affective response to exercise of varying intensity: differing pathways to a common outcome. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2001; 23: 171–190.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Acevedo EO, Kraemer RR, Haltom RW, Tryniecki JL. Perceptual responses proximal to the onset of blood lactate accumulation. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003; 43: 267–273.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Parfitt G, Rose EA, Burgess WM. The psychological and physiological responses of sedentary individuals to prescribed and preferred intensity exercise. Br J Health Psychol. 2006; 11: 39–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Ekkekakis P, Hall EE, Peruzzello SJ. Some like it vigorous: measuring individual differences in the preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2005; 27: 350–374.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Ekkekakis P, Lind E, Joens-Matre RR. Can self-reported preference for exercise intensity predict physiologically defined self-selected exercise intensity. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2006; 77: 81–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Ekkekakis P, Lind E, Hall EE, Petruzzello SJ. Can self-reported tolerance of exercise intensity play a role in exercise testing. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007; 39: 1193–1199.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Greene B. Get with the Program! Getting Real About Your Weight, Health, and Emotional Well-being. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Belman MJ, Gaesser GA. Exercise training below and above the lactate threshold in the elderly. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1991; 23: 562–568.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Weltman A, Seip RL, Snead D, et al. Exercise training at and above the lactate threshold in previously untrained women. Int J Sports Med. 1992; 13: 257–263.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Ekkekakis P, Petruzzello SJ. Biofeedback in exercise psychology. In: Blumenstein B, Bar-Eli M, Tenenbaum G, eds. Brain and Body in Sport and Exercise: Biofeedback Application in Performance Enhancement. Chichester, United Kingdom: Wiley; 2002: 77–100.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, 253 Barbara E. Forker Building, Ames, IA, 50011, USA

    Panteleimon Ekkekakis

  2. Department of Health and Human Performance, Elon University, Elon, NC, USA

    Eric E. Hall

  3. Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

    Steven J. Petruzzello

Authors
  1. Panteleimon Ekkekakis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Eric E. Hall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Steven J. Petruzzello
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Panteleimon Ekkekakis.

About this article

Cite this article

Ekkekakis, P., Hall, E.E. & Petruzzello, S.J. The Relationship Between Exercise Intensity and Affective Responses Demystified: To Crack the 40-Year-Old Nut, Replace the 40-Year-Old Nutcracker!. ann. behav. med. 35, 136–149 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-008-9025-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-008-9025-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation